INTENSIVE  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •   BOSTON  •   CHICAGO   •  DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •   BOMBAY    •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


INTENSIVE    STUDIES    IN 
AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


BY 

ALMA  BLOUNT,  PH.  D.  (CORNELL) 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR    OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  MICHIGAN  STATE 
NORMAL  COLLEGE 


•Dforo  f  0rk 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1914 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  January,  1914. 


TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  MY  FATHER, 

3f0H*pIj  Untmt  $L  $., 

WHOSE  APPRECIATIVE  READING  WAS 
MY  FIRST  INSTRUCTION  IN  LITERATURE. 


300054 


PREFACE 

Rhetoric  and  literary  criticism  have  been  so  long  and  so 
thoroughly  discussed  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  treat  of 
them  in  a  strictly  original  manner.  In  the  present  volume 
general  indebtedness  to  the  works  enumerated  in  the  Bib 
liography  to  Part  I  will  be  evident,  and  there  are,  without 
doubt,  echoes  of  many  other  volumes  that  have  been  con 
sulted  in  the  years  during  which  this  text  has  been  developing. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  specific  credit  wherever 
possible.  Professor  Clark  S.  Northup  of  Cornell  University 
kindly  read  the  manuscript  and  suggested  improvement  in 
certain  details.  Doctor  Ida  Fleischer  of  the  Michigan  State 
Normal  College  assisted  in  the  proof-reading. 

The  selections  from  C.  D.  Warner's  My  Summer  in  a 
Garden,  Longfellow's  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  Emerson  in 
Concord,  and  Scudder's  Life  of  Lowell  are  used  by  permission 
of,  and  by  special  arrangement  with,  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  authorized  publishers  of  these  works.  In  the 
course  of  the  text  courtesies  are  acknowledged  to  the  following 
publishers:  Ginn  and  Company,  D.  Appleton  and  Company, 
Doubleday,  Page,  and  Company,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
The  American  Book  Company,  Harper  Brothers,  Estes  and 
Lauriat,  and  The  Macmillan  Company. 


vii 


SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS 

Every  teacher  of  literature  knows  how  often  students 
come  unprepared  to  the  class  with  the  excuse,  "  I  didn't  know 
how  to  go  at  the  lesson."  They  have  in  their  hands  some 
edition  of  a  masterpiece,  carefully  annotated  to  explain 
words  and  allusions,  but  failing  to  suggest  any  plan  of  study. 
If  the  teacher  has  no  time  or  opportunity  to  formulate  such 
a  plan,  the  students  probably  gain  only  detached  and  frag 
mentary  notions  of  the  classic,  and  no  conception  at  all  of 
its  purpose  and  value.  The  studies  in  this  volume  are  in 
tended  to  show  the  pupils  one  way  "to  go  at"  their  work, 
by  outlining  plans  for  the  study  of  some  of  the  masterpieces 
most  profitable  for  class  work  and  most  often  used  in  the 
high  school  class  in  American  literature.  The  STUDIES  are 
the  product  of  class-room  experience,  and  have  been  found 
practically  useful  as  a  means  of  inspiring  in  not  a  few  young 
persons  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  good  literature.  It 
may  not  be  amiss  to  state  here  a  few  of  the  aims  the  volume 
attempts  to  achieve. 

1.  It  is  not  the  intention  that  the  book  shall  furnish  the 
student  with  material  for  memorizing  —  shall  do  his  think 
ing  for  him.  It  is  the  purpose,  rather,  to  direct  his  thought 
and  work.  The  book  is  to  point  out  to  him  the  various  fea 
tures  to  which,  in  certain  works  of  literature,  he  should  give 
his  attention.  It  is  expected  that,  through  the  study  of 
certain  poems  and  stories  and  essays,  he  will  form  such 

ix 


x  SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS 

habits  of  reading  and  observation  as  will  develop  in  him  the 
power  to  apply  the  same  principles  to  other  works,  and  to 
analyze  independently  other  classics  of  the  same  kind  and 
no  greater  difficulty.  One  test  of  the  success  of  school  work 
and  text-book  direction  in  literature  is  the  increase  in  the 
student's  power  to  read  good  books  with  understanding  and 
with  pleasure. 

2.  An  attempt  is  made  in  each  one  of  these  STUDIES  to 
emphasize  the  thought  of  the  masterpiece,  and  to  make  that 
the  basis  of  work.    Rhetorical  devices  are  discussed  not  for 
their  own  sake,  but  as  means  by  which  a  certain  thought 
is  well  expressed,  or  a  certain  effect  is  successfully  produced. 

3.  It  is  the  endeavor  of  these  STUDIES  to  keep  the  master 
piece  before  the  student  as  a  unit,  to  emphasize  the  unifying 
notion  —  "the  informing  spirit"  that  governs  and  gives  life 
to  the  expression.    In  the  study  of  any  work  of  art,  the  parts 
must  not  be  made  so  prominent  as  to  seem  greater  than  the 
whole;  rather,  details,  while  not  neglected,  must  be  sub 
ordinated  to  and  blended  into  the  effect  and  harmony  of 
the  whole.    It  is  a  mistake  to  be  so  occupied  with  the  trees 
that  one  cannot  see  the  forest.    A  literary  classic  must  not 
be  made  to  appear  a  pot-pourri  of  figures,  sentences,  words, 
strung  together  for  their  own  sake,  with  little  system  and 
no  method.    Therefore  each  masterpiece  is  here  considered 
first  as  a  whole  and  last  as  a  whole,  that  the  unity  of  im 
pression  may  not  be  lost. 

4.  This  careful  and  detailed  study  of  an  author's  works 
must  precede  any  intelligent  general  statements  about  his 
style,  and  in  classes  of  students  sufficiently  advanced  may 
properly  be  followed  by  a  paper  summarizing  the  results  of 
the  study  of  the  individual  works.     Such  a  paper  will  tell 
how  a  writer   commonly  makes  forcible,   suggestive,   and 


SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS  xi 

artistic  the  expression  of  his  thought ;  will  set  forth  his  usual 
method  (comparison  and  figure,  specific  word  and  epithet, 
allusion,  etc.)  of  developing  his  thought  or  calling  up  images 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader;  and  will  treat  of  all  such  matters 
of  style  as  reveal  the  author's  habit  of  mind.  The  student 
will  attain  one  of  the  most  satisfying  results  of  the  study  of 
literature  if  he  can  come  to  know  his  author  as  an  acquaint 
ance  and  friend  —  can  enumerate  the  qualities  of  his  mind 
and  heart,  as  well  as  those  of  his  art,  and  feel  the  influence 
of  his  personality. 

5.  However  thorough  and  conscientious  may  be  the  formal 
study  of  a  work  of  art,  it  yet  leaves  something  to  be  desired  — 
an  intimate  and  spiritual  appreciation,  without  which  the 
best  of  formal  work  is  vain  and  empty.  The  formal  study 
should  help  to  prepare  the  mind  and  heart  for  such  apprecia 
tion  by  concentrating  the  attention  on  the  beauty  of  the 
conception  and  of  its  expression;  but  sympathy  is  not  a 
necessary  or  direct  result  of  even  good  formal  study.  Every 
intelligent  being  is  more  or  less  susceptible  to  the  influence  of 
beauty,  and  this  natural  susceptibility  may  be  cultivated. 
The  means  of  cultivation  comes  to  most  persons  through  the 
influence  of  some  personality.  A  text-book  is,  perforce,  too 
impersonal  to  furnish  the  atmosphere  necessary  for  the  most 
complete  and  profitable  study  of  any  work  of  art.  It  is  the 
teacher's  province  to  create  this  atmosphere  in  the  class 
room.  The  text-book  relieves  the  teacher  of  careful  and 
troubled  attention  to  many  details  and  formal  matters,  that 
he  may  give  himself  more  freely  to  this  better  part.  Love 
of  and  enthusiasm  for  beauty  are  contagious;  they  are  trans 
mitted,  indeed,  rather  by  contagion  than  by  direct  instruc 
tion.  The  ability  to  bring  an  inspiring  atmosphere  into  the 
class-room  is  a  sine  qua  non  for  a  teacher  of  art.  A  mechanical 


xii  SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS 

instructor  teaches  nothing  really  worth  while  in  literature, 
and  no  text-book  can  do  for  his  class  what  his  personality 
should  be  able  to  do. 

6.  It  is  recommended  that  the  students  be  encouraged 
to  look  up  critical  estimates  of  a  classic  after  it  has  been 
studied  carefully,  never  before.     They  will  thus  learn  to 
be  independent  in  work  and  in  judgment. 

7.  There  are  many  good  and  inexpensive  annotated  edi 
tions  of  some  of  the  works  discussed  in  this  volume  (e.  g., 
Emerson's  Essays  and  Poe's  Tales),  and  the  compiler  of  these 
STUDIES  has  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  explain  allusions 
and  references  found  in  these  pieces  of  literature.    The  neces 
sary  notes  will  naturally  be  in  the  hands  of  the  students. 
In  all  cases  where  the  author  of  this  book  has,  in  her  own 
experience,  found  it  difficult  to  obtain  texts  satisfactorily 
annotated,  she  has  furnished  here  notes  and  explanations 
necessary  for  a  complete  study  of  detail. 

8.  In  this  volume  reference  is  made,   unless  otherwise 
stated,  to  lines  of  poetry  and  to  paragraphs  of  prose.    The 
STUDIES  are  grouped  for  convenience  under  the  authors  of 
the  selections  studied,  and  the  authors  are  placed  chiefly  in 
chronological  order.    Unless,  however,  the  STUDIES  are  used 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  American  literature  or  to 
bring  out  the  distinctive  style  of  the  various  writers,  it  may 
be  found  more  desirable  to  use  them  in  connection  with  the 
Rhetorical  Introduction   until   the   subjects   of  Meter   and 
Melody  and  Harmony  have  been  discussed  (see  exercises 
for  practice  after  these  topics  in  the  Introduction),  and  after 
the  discussion  of  Figures  of  Speech  to  take  up  the  easier 
before  the  more  difficult  poems  and  stories,  combining  with 
them  the  remaining  sections  of  the  Introduction.     For  ex 
ample,   Lanier's   Tampa  Robins  should  precede  the  more 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS  xiii 

difficult  poems  of  earlier  writers,  if  nothing  is  to  be  con 
sidered  but  the  study  of  the  poem  itself. 

9.  Other  groupings  of  material  and  innumerable  other 
exercises  will  readily  occur  to  the  teacher.  For  example, 
various  works  of  the  same  kind  may  be  studied  together. 
The  ballads  of  Longfellow,  Lowell,  and  Whittier  may  be 
compared  with  each  other  and  with  the  Early  English  bal 
lads;  variations  in  style  may  be  observed,  and  in  some  cases 
reasons  for  such  variations  can  be  discovered.  Again,  com 
parisons  of  authors  on  certain  points  of  style  may  profitably 
be  made.  Which  depend  most  on  epithets  for  effects?  Which 
on  figures  of  speech?  Which  authors  have  the  broadest 
interests,  and  how  do  they  show  it?  Which  are  most  in 
fluenced  by  Nature?  Which  by  books  and  scholarship? 
How  do  they  show  such  influence  —  in  choice  of  subjects, 
in  source  of  figures,  in  abundance  of  allusions,  by  imitation? 
What  mental  qualities  do  all  these  peculiarities  of  style 
reveal?  For  purposes  of  comparison,  poems  may  be  grouped 
according  to  subjects,  e.  g.,  poems  addressed  to  flowers  by 
several  writers  may  be  studied  together  to  show  how  in 
various  ways  to  various  persons 

the  meanest  flower  that  blows  can  give 
Thoughts  that  do  often  lie  too  deep  for  tears. 

—  WORDSWORTH. 

Another  exceedingly  profitable  exercise  may  be  used  for 
training  the  frequently  neglected  ear  to  catch  an  author's 
meaning  and' method.  After  listening  to  a  first  reading  by 
the  teacher  of,  say,  Emerson's  Each  and  All,  the  class  should 
be  able  to  state  clearly  in  a  single  sentence  the  central  thought 
of  the  poem;  and  on  hearing  it  a  second  time,  the  teacher 
having  directed  them  to  listen  now  for  the  poet's  method, 


xiv  SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS 

they  should  be  able  to  discover  that  the  theme  is  developed 
by  example,  and  to  say  which  example  is  evidently  the  most 
important  one  in  the  poet's  mind  —  perhaps  even  the  raison 
d'etre  of  the  entire  poem. 

10.  Little  attempt  is  here  made  to  define  formally  the 
rhetorical  terms  explained  and  used.  The  writer  has  found 
that  beginners  do  better  to  acquire  familiarity  with  and 
usage  of  technical  terms  rather  through  example  and  prac 
tice  than  through  formal  definitions,  which  belong  to  later, 
more  philosophical  study.  It  is  believed,  however,  that 
the  less  formal  explanations  of  this  volume  are  in  accord 
with  the  discussions  to  be  found  in  the  most  scholarly  of 
advanced  books  on  literary  forms  and  criticism,  and  that 
this  volume  will  serve,  therefore,  for  those  students  who 
go  on  to  a  college  course,  as  an  introduction  to  more  ad 
vanced  work.  Neither  do  these  discussions  pretend  to  be 
exhaustive,  or  to  settle  vexed  questions.  They  are  intended 
merely  to  make  the  young  student  more  sensitive  to  the 
form  and  content  of  works  of  literature,  in  order  that  he 
may  read  with  greater  profit  and  pleasure.  The  suggestions 
for  supplementary  reading  are  intended  to  furnish  a  back 
ground  for  the  selections  more  carefully  studied.  In  the 
study  of  the  history  of  American  literature,  the  class  should 
have  access  also  to  some  book  (like  Stedman's  Anthology) 
containing  selections  from  minor  poets,  and  of  course  to  the 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson  Library  of  American  Literature. 
The  various  bibliographies  are  not  intended  to  be  complete, 
but  to  name  some  books  that  have  been  found  particularly 
useful  to  young  people. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  I 
RHETORICAL  INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

PAGE 

What  Literature  Is • 1 

CHAPTER  II 

THE    FORMS    OF    POETRY 

Meter 5 

Stanza  and  Rime 20 

The  Kinds  of  Poetry 25 

CHAPTER  III 

MELODY   AND    HARMONY 

Melody 30 

Harmony 34 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE    SENTENCE 

Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 39 

Sentence  Inversion 41 

XV 


XVI  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Long  and  Short  Sentences 42 

The  Balanced  Construction 42 

Rhetorical  Interrogation  and  Exclamation 44 

CHAPTER  V 

DICTION 

The  Vocabulary 47 

General  and  Specific  Terms 48 

Long  and  Short  Words 50 

Denotation  and  Connotation 51 

Poetic  Diction 53 

CHAPTER  VI 

FIGURES    OF   SPEECH 

Literal  and  Figurative  Language 58 

Figures  of  Comparison 59 

Apostrophe  and  Vision 65 

Figures  of  Association QQ 

Some  General  Remarks  on  Figures 67 

CHAPTER  VII 

VARIOUS    QUALITIES    OF   STYLE    AND    KINDS    OF    WRITING 

Wit  and  Humor 71 

Pathos .  . 74 

Hyperbole 74 

Irony,  Sarcasm,  Satire 75 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Allusions  and  How  to  Study  Them ....  77 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xvii 

CHAPTER  IX 

PAGE 

Thought  and  Style 81 

CHAPTER  X 
How  to  Study  a  Piece  of  Literature 9(D 

PART  II 

INTENSIVE  STUDIES 

CHAPTER  XI 

WASHINGTON   IRVING 

Stratf  ord-on-Avon 101 

Westminster  Abbey 104 

CHAPTER  XII 

WILLIAM   CULLEN   BRYANT 

To  a  Waterfowl 109 

Inscription  for  the  Entrance  to  a  Wood Ill 

A  Forest  Hymn 113 

Monument  Mountain 114 

The  Antiquity  of  Freedom , 115 

Thanatopsis 118 

The  Flood  of  Years 121 

CHAPTER  XIII 

EDGAR   ALLAN   POE 

The  Bells 124 

The  Raven |v. 128 

The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher .  .  .130 


xviii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

A  Descent  into  the  Maelstrom 133 

The  Purloined  Letter 136 

The  Gold-Bug 137 

CHAPTER  XIV 

HENRY   WADSWORTH    LONGFELLOW 

The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs .  .  .- 143 

My  Lost  Youth 146 

Three  Friends  of  Mine 148 

The  Arsenal  at  Springfield 150 

The  Skeleton  in  Armor 152 

The  Building  of  the  Ship 155 

The  Hanging  of  the  Crane 163 

Morituri  Salutamus 168 

Keramos 172 

CHAPTER  XV 

JOHN    GREENLEAF   WHITTIER 

Telling  the  Bees. .  .*. 180 

The  Huskers '.  183 

The  Eternal  Goodness 185 

Snow-Bound V 187 

The  Last  Walk  in  Autumn 196 

CHAPTER  XVI 

JAMES   RUSSELL   LOWELL 

The  Singing  Leaves 205 

The  Shepherd  of  King  Admetus - 207 

An  Incident  in  a  Railroad  Car jjf. 209 

Rhoecus ' 211 

To  the  Dandelion .  .  213 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xix 


PAGE 

The  Nightingale  in  the  Study 215 

My  Garden  Acquaintance .  .  .  . . 218 

The  Vision  of  Sir  Launf  al .  .  /<<\ 224 

The  Present  Crisis 234 

The  Commemoration  Ode .  240 


CHAPTER  XVII 


OLIVER   WENDELL   HOLMES 


The  Chambered  Nautilus  .  .  .  l^\  ............................  252 

The  Voiceless  ...........................  .  256 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


NATHANIEL   HAWTHORNE 

The  Great  Stone  Face L/, 258 

The  Ambitious  Guest 262 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SIDNEY   LANIER 

The  Song  of  the  Chattahoochee 264 

Tampa  Robins 266 

The  Marshes  of  Glynn 267 


CHAPTER  XX 

WALT   WHITMAN 

O  Captain!  My  Captain! ;'. 271 

When  Lilacs  Last  in  the  Dooryard  Bloom'd 273 

Out  of  the  Cradle  Endlessly  Rocking .277 


xx  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXI 

EALPH   WALDO    EMERSON 

PAGE 

Some  Suggestions  for  the  Study  of  Emerson's  Essays 280 

Friendship 282 

Heroism 284 

Character 287 

Manners 290 

Compensation 295 

Self-Reliance 302 

Culture 309 

APPENDIX 

I.  A  List  of  Essay  Subjects 313 

II.  An  Abstract  of  Forman's  Greater  Love „ .   324 

III.  Addison's  Thoughts  in  Westminster  Abbey 325 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

The  Shakespeare  House,  1                                                   facing  20 
The  Birth  Room,             I 

Holy  Trinity  Church facing  40 

The  Chapel  of  Henry  VII facing  60 

The  Poets'  Corner facing  81 

A  Chart  of  Stratford 102 

Charlecote  Hall facing  103 

A  Plan  of  Westminster  Abbey 104 

Melrose  Abbey facing  106 

The  Precipice facing  114 

A  Ship  on  the  Blocks •  •  I57 

The  Lines  of  Lights  on  Harvard  Bridge facing  167 

Gerome's  Ave  Casar facing  168 

The  Potter  at  Work 174 

A  Well,  Showing  the  Curb  and  Well-Sweep 189 

The  Whittier  Birthplace,  j  .facing  190 

The  Whittier  Kitchen,      I 

The  Shell  of  the  Nautilus 253 

"The  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains" facing  260 


xxi 


INTENSIVE  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 


INTENSIVE  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 

PART  I 
RHETORICAL   INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTORY  — WHAT  LITERATURE  IS 

If  some  one  should  ask  us,  "What  are  the  text-books  you 
study  in  school  good  for?"  we  should  not  hesitate  to  reply, 
"They  teach  us  things  we  have  not  known  before  about 
language,  about  the  earth  and  the  life  upon  it,  about  men 
of  past  ages,  about  mathematical  quantities."  And  it  is 
true  that  a  great  many  of  the  books  we  study  are  written  to 
increase  our  knowledge. 

But  there  are  other  books  from  which  we  may  derive  quite 
as  much  benefit  as  from  scientific  books,  and  perhaps  even 
more  pleasure,  if  we  learn  to  use  them  properly;  these  are 
books  of  literature.  They  are  not  intended  primarily  to 
teach  us  facts,  though  in  studying  a  book  of  literature  we 
may  incidentally  learn  a  great  many  facts.  They  are  in 
tended  through  harmonious  language  to  present  beautiful 
images  to  the  imagination,  to  suggest  noble  thoughts,  and  so 
to  lead  us  to  broader  and  higher  views  of  life.  It  is  this  pur 
pose  of  elevating  us  through  our  emotions  or  sympathies  that 
distinguishes,  fundamentally,  books  of  literature  from  books 
addressed  merely  to  the  intellect,  like  our  text-books  and 
many  other  scientific  works. 

1 


2  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

In  his  essay  on  The  Poetry  of  Pope,  De  Quincey  has  this 
to  say  about  "The  Literature  of  Knowledge  and  the  Litera 
ture  of  Power: " 

In  that  great  social  organ  which,  collectively,  we  call  literature, 
there  may  be  distinguished  two  separate  offices  that  may  blend  and 
often  do  so,  but  capable  severally  of  a  severe  insulation,  and  naturally 
fitted  for  reciprocal  repulsion.  There  is,  first,  the  literature  of  knowl 
edge;  and,  secondly,  the  literature  of  power.  The  function  of  the  first 
is  —  to  teach;  the  function  of  the  second  is  —  to  move;  the  first  is  a  rudder; 
the  second,  an  oar  or  a  sail.  The  first  speaks  to  the  mere  discursive 
understanding;  the  second  speaks  ultimately,  it  may  happen,  to  the 
higher  understanding  or  reason,  but  always  through  affections  of  plea 
sure  and  sympathy.  .  .  .  Men  have  so  little  reflected  on  the  higher 
functions  of  literature  as  to  find  it  a  paradox  if  one  should  describe  it  as 
a  mean  or  subordinate  purpose  of  books  to  give  information.  But  this 
is  a  paradox  only  in  the  sense  which  makes  it  honourable  to  be  para 
doxical.  Whenever  we  talk  in  ordinary  language  of  seeking  information 
or  gaining  knowledge,  we  understand  the  words  as  connected  with 
something  of  absolute  novelty.  But  it  is  the  grandeur  of  all  truth  which 
can  occupy  a  very  high  place  in  human  interests  that  it  is  never  ab 
solutely  novel  to  the  meanest  of  minds:  it  exists  eternally  by  way  of 
germ  or  latent  principle  in  the  lowest  as  in  the  highest,  needing  to  be 
developed,  but  never  to  be  planted.  To  be  capable  of  transplantation 
is  the  immediate  criterion  of  a  truth  that  ranges  on  a  lower  scale.  Be 
sides  which,  there  is  a  rarer  thing  than  truth,  —  namely,  power,  or  deep 
sympathy  with  truth.  What  is  the  effect,  for  instance,  upon  society, 
of  children?  By  the  pity,  by  the  tenderness,  and  by  the  peculiar  modes 
of  admiration,  which  connect  themselves  with  the  helplessness,  with  the 
innocence,  and  with  the  simplicity  of  children,  not  only  are  the  primal 
affections  strengthened  and  continually  renewed,  but  the  qualities  which 
are  dearest  in  the  sight  of  heaven,  —  the  frailty,  for  instance,  which 
appeals  to  forbearance,  the  innocence  which  symbolizes  the  heavenly, 
and  the  simplicity  which  is  most  alien  from  the  worldly,  —  are  kept  in 
perpetual  remembrance,  and  their  ideals  are  continually  refreshed.  A 
purpose  of  the  same  nature  is  answered  by  the  higher  literature,  viz.,  the 
literature  of  power.  What  do  you  learn  from  Paradise  Lost?  Nothing  at 
all.  What  do  you  learn  from  a  cookery  book?  Something  new,  some- 


INTRODUCTORY  — WHAT  LITERATURE  IS          3 

thing  that  you  did  not  know  before,  in  every  paragraph.  But  would  you 
therefore  put  the  wretched  cookery-book  on  a  higher  level  of  estimation 
than  the  divine  poem?  What  you  owe  to  Milton  is  not  any  knowledge, 
of  which  a  million  separate  items  are  still  but  a  million  of  advancing 
steps  on  the  same  earthly  level;  what  you  owe  is  power,  —  that  is,  exer 
cise  and  expansion  to  your  own  latent  capacity  of  sympathy  with  the 
infinite,  where  every  pulse  and  each  separate  influx  is  a  step  upwards, 
a  step  ascending  as  on  a  Jacob's  ladder  from  earth  to  mysterious  alti 
tudes  above  the  earth.  All  the  steps  of  knowledge,  from  first  to  last, 
carry  you  further  on  the  same  plane,  but  could  never  raise  you  one  foot 
above  your  ancient  level  of  earth:  whereas  the  very  first  step  in  power 
is  a  flight  —  is  an  ascending  movement  into  another  element  where  earth 
is  forgotten. 

We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  a  person  can  read  a 
book  of  literature  without  using  his  intellect.  It  would  be 
a  very  shallow  book  —  indeed  one  not  worth  reading  care 
fully  —  that  did  not  require  concentrated  attention.  In 
fact,  it  is  often  harder  to  grasp  the  thought  in  a  book  of 
literature  than  that  in  a  book  addressed  merely  to  the  in 
tellect.  For,  in  order  to  make  more  effective  the  truth 
which  the  literary  book  presents,  the  bare  thought  is  fre 
quently  overlaid  with  images,  which  the  imagination  must 
master  before  the  reader  can  grasp  the  underlying  truth. 
When  we  read  a  poem,  a  story,  an  essay,  a  great  oration, 
we  need  to  be  alive  in  every  part  of  our  being  —  memory, 
imagination,  intellect,  feeling. 

All  books  belonging  to  the  " literature  of  power"  differ 
more  or  less  in  style  from  books  belonging  to  the  "  literature 
of  knowledge."  This  is  necessary  because  the  purpose  of 
one  differs  from  the  purpose  of  the  other.  We  are  satisfied 
if  a  book  that  merely  conveys  information  is  clearly,  correctly, 
and  pleasantly  written.  We  expect  much  more  of  a  book  of 
literary  power;  in  fact,  a  book  cannot  belong  to  the  " power" 


4  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

class  unless  it  offers  us  a  great  deal  more  than  clearness  and 
correctness.  The  purpose  of  poetry  is  farthest  removed  from 
that  of  mere  science,  therefore  the  style  of  poetry  differs  most 
from  that  of  scientific  writing.  We  shall  now  inquire  what 
peculiarities  of  style  belong  to  poetry;  and  we  shall  see  that 
most  (not  all)  of  those  that  do  not  relate  to  the  peculiar 
structure  of  poetry  belong  also  to  literary  prose,  intended, 
like  poetry,  to  describe  vividly  some  scene,  or  to  make  us  feel 
deeply  some  truth  or  some  phase  of  beauty. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY 

1.  METER 

Every  line  of  poetry  is  divided  into  measures,  as  music  is 
divided.  A  poetic  measure  is  called  a  foot. 

The  feet  in  a  line  of  poetry,  like  the  measures  in  a  musical 
composition,  are  given  equal  time.  Each  foot  has  one  ac 
cent,  and  the  accented  syllable,  being  the  most  prominent, 
is  the  longest  in  the  foot. 

The  English  poetic  foot  has  sometimes  two,  sometimes 
three,  syllables.  Feet  are  divided  into  classes  on  the  basis 
of  the  number  of  syllables  and  the  position  of  the  accent. 
To  these  classes  are  still  given  the  names  they  received  from 
the  ancient  Greek  rhetoricians. 

The  Iambic  foot  contains  two  syllables,  the  accented 
coming  last. 

X          /         X  /        X  /       X        /  X         / 

The  cur  |  few  tolls  |  the  knell  |  of  part  |  ing  day, 
x      /       x      /  x        /       x     /      x     / 

The  low  |  ing  herd  |  winds  slow    ly  o'er  |  the  lea, 
x        /         x         /       x         /    '     x      /       x     / 

The  plow  |  man  home  |  ward  plods  |  his  wear  |  y  way, 
x       /          x         /        x      /         x      /       x      / 

And  leaves  |  the  world  |  to  dark  |  ness  and  |  to  me. 

—  GRAY:  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard. 

The  iambus  is  the  most  common  foot  in  English.  Each 
iambus  is  a  climax  (x  /),  and  a  line  of  iambic  feet  has  a 

5 


6  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

serious,  sustained  effect.     It  is  especially  appropriate  when 
solemn,  serious  thoughts  are  to  be  expressed. 

The  Trochaic  foot  is  the  two-syllable  foot  that  begins  with 
the  accented  syllable  and  ends  with  the  unaccented  syllable. 

/          X  /         X  /  X  /    X 

Should  you  |  ask  me  |  whence  these    stories, 

/  x        /    x  /     x        /  x 

Whence  these  |  legends  |  and  tra  |  ditions. 

—  LONGFELLOW:  Hiawatha. 

The  trochee  has  the  effect  of  an  anti-climax,  and  is  lighter, 
brighter,  and  more  rapid  than  the  iambus.  It  is  used  when 
less  weighty  thought  is  to  be  expressed. 

The  Spondee  is  made  up  of  two  syllables,  both  accented. 
An  entire  line  could  not  be  made  of  spondaic  feet,  because 
that  would  require  every  syllable  to  be  accented.  The 
spondee  occurs  in  combination  with  other  two-syllable  feet, 
especially  with  the  iambus,  to  retard  the  time  and  emphasize 
certain  words. 

X       /          X       /  X  /  X        / 

I  hold  |  it  truth  |  with  him  |  who  sings 

X       /  /          /  X      /          X       / 

To  one    clear  harp  \  in  div  |  ers  tones, 

x       /        x     /        x      /        x          / 
That  men  |  may  rise  |  on  step  |  ping  stones 
x        /        /       /          x     /        x      / 
Of  their  |  dead  selves  \  to  high  |  er  things. 

—  TENNYSON:  In  Memoriam. 

x     /         /       /  x     /          /          /  x     / 

The  long  |  day  wanes;  \  the  slow  |  moon  climbs;  \  the  deep 

/  /  X  /       X       /  X 

Moans  round  \  with  ma  |  ny  voic  |  es. 

—  TENNYSON  :  Ulysses. 

The  Anapest  is  the  three-syllable  foot  that  corresponds  to 
the  iambus.  It  ends  with  the  accented  syllable,  and  has 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  7 

therefore  the  effect  of  a  climax.  The  anapestic  foot  is  more 
rapid  in  movement  than  the  iambic,  but  it,  also,  is  adapted 
to  the  quiet,  meditative  spirit. 

XX  /          XX/  XX/  XX/ 

At  the  close  |  of  the  day  |  when  the  ham  |  let  is  still. 

The  Dactyl  is  the  three-syllable  foot  that  corresponds  to 
the  trochee,  an  anti-climax.  It  is  the  opposite  of  the  anapest. 
Longfellow's  Evangeline  is  written  partly  in  dactylic  measure. 

/XX  /XX  /    X  X  /  XX  /          XX  / 

This  is  the  |  forest -pri  |  meval.    The    murmuring  |  pines  and  the  |  hem- 
x 

locks, 

/xx  /        xx/x  /xx         /xx        / 

Bearded  with  |  moss,  and  in  |  garments  |  green,  indis  |  tinct  in  the    twi- 

x 
light, 

/  X  /XX/X  /X/XX  /X 

Stand  like  |  Druids  of  |  eld,  with  |  voices  |  sad  and  pro  |  phetic, 

/      X         /x/x  /  x/xx         /x 

Stand  like  |  harpers  |  hoar,  with  |  beards  that  |  rest  on  their  |  bosom. 

The  brightness  of  the  dactylic  movement  is  toned  down 
here  by  the  use  of  the  trochaic  measure,  which  has  but  one 
quick,  unaccented  syllable. 

The  Amphibrach  is  not  often  used.  It  is  a  three-syllable 
foot,  with  the  accent  in  the  middle. 

X          /  XX  /XX/XX/X 

There  came  to  |  the  beach  a  |  poor  exile  |  of  Erin, 

x/x       x/x         x/xx        / 
The  dew  on  |  his  thin  robe  |  lay  heavy  |  and  chill. 

—  THOMAS  CAMPBELL. 

The  second  line  here  has  no  final  unaccented  syllable. 

We  have  said  that  the  poetic  foot  is,  like  the  musical 
measure,  an  exact  time  unit.  But  to  pronounce  a  line  with 


8  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

such  exact  marking  of  the  accents  and  time  units  would  be 
to  scan  it,  not  to  read  it.  Good  poetry,  like  good  music,  must 
be  interpreted  with  expression.  And  the  best  poetry  is  full 
of  variations  and  slight  irregularities  that  serve  to  bring  out 
more  forcibly  the  thought  which  the  words  express.  Some 
rhetoricians  prefer  to  call  poetry  rhythmical  rather  than 
metrical,  thus  indicating  that  there  is  an  exact  time  interval 
between  the  accents,  but  stating  nothing  with  regard  to 
the  number  or  length  of  syllables  that  occupy  this  interval. 
Read  aloud  one  of  the  rather  mechanically  constructed 
couplets  from  Pope's  Essay  on  Man. 


x          /      x     / 
Know  then  |  thyself, 


x       /       x        Ixl 
presume  |  not  God  |  to  scan 


X         /  X      /  X      /         X       /          X         / 

The  pro  |  per  stud  |  y  of    mankind  |  is  man. 

This  poem  is  addressed  chiefly  to  the  intellect,  and  the  some 
what  wooden  character  of  the  meter  is  not,  therefore,  a  very 
serious  defect.  Compare  this  with  a  few  lines  from  Cole 
ridge's  Christabel. 

x     /    x       /   x     /      x      / 
There  is  not  wind  enough  to  twirl 
x       /      /     /      x       /    x   x       / 
The  one  red  leaf  the  last  of  its  clan, 
x      /xx/xx        /x/ 
That  dances  as  often  as  dance  it  can, 

/    x    x       /      x       /      x     x     / 
Hanging  so  light  and  hanging  so  high 

xx/x        /x         x/xx/ 
On  the  topmost  twig  that  looks  up  at  the  sky. 

Coleridge  himself  explains  his  meter  in  Christabel: 

[It]  is  not,  properly  speaking,  irregular,  though  it  may  seem  so  from  be 
ing  founded  on  a  new  principle,  namely  that  of  counting  in  each  line  the 
accents,  not  the  syllables.  Though  the  latter  may  vary  from  seven  to 
twelve,  yet  in  each  line  the  accents  will  be  found  to  be  only  four.  Never- 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  9 

theless,  the  occasional  variation  in  number  of  syllables  is  not  introduced 
wantonly,  but  in  correspondence  with  some  transition  in  the  nature  of 
the  imagery  or  passion. 

The  correspondence  of  sound  and  meaning  in  the  passage 
quoted  is  thus  explained  by  Johnson  (Forms  of  English 
Poetry,  page  31): 

The  slow  iambics  in  the  first  line  suggest  quiet  night.  The  second 
line  is  more  drowsy.  The  spondee,  'red  leaf/  makes  the  movement 
slow  and  halts  the  line.  'Of  its  clan/  anapest,  however,  imparts  move 
ment.  In  the  third  line  the  iambics  and  anapests  give  more  liveliness. 
The  fourth  line  is  more  rapid  still,  and  in  the  fifth  the  iambus  and  three 
anapests  correspond  to  the  idea  of  restless  movement.  * 

In  a  sentence,  we  may  say  that  the  movement  is  slow  when 
the  poet  speaks  of  the  quiet,  windless  night,  and  rapid  when 
he  speaks  of  the  quick,  dancing  motion  of  the  leaf.  Thus 
it  is  evident  that  in  good  poetry  variation  is  not  made  merely 
for  the  sake  of  variation,  but  to  bring  out  some  particular 
shade  of  thought  or  feeling.  The  poet  is  the  master,  not  the 
slave,  of  his  meter. 

Observe  the  vivid  suggestion  to  the  imagination,  and  the 
accompanying  emotional  effect  obtained  by  reversing  the 
position  of  the  accents  in  these  lines  from  Poe's  Annabel  Lee. 

x     I  x/xx/  i  x 

A  wind  |  blew  out  |  of  a  cloud,  |  chilling 
My  beautiful  Annabel  Lee. 

That,  the  wind  came  out  of  a  cloud  by  night, 

/    x     x        /    x        x/xx/ 
Chilling  and  \  killing  \  my  Ann  |  abel  Lee. 

Clayton  Hamilton,  in  his  Materials  and  Methods  of  Fic 
tion  (pages  206,  207),  has  the  following  paragraph: 

*  From  Forms  of  English  Poetry.  Copyright,  1904,  by  Charles  F.  Johnson. 
Permission  of  American  Book  Company,  publishers. 


10  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  appeal  of  rhythm  to  the  human  ear  is  basal  and  elemental;  the 
style  depends  for  its  effect  more  on  mastery  of  rhythmic  phrase  than 
upon  any  other  individual  detail.  In  verse,  the  technical  problem  is 
two-fold:  first,  to  suggest  to  the  ear  of  the  reader  a  rhythmic  pattern  of 
standard  regularity;  and  then,  to  vary  from  the  regularity  suggested 
as  deftly  and  as  frequently  as  may  be  possible  without  ever  allowing 
the  reader  for  a  moment  to  forget  the  fundamental  pattern.  In  prose, 
the  writer  works  with  greater  freedom;  and  his  problem  is  therefore  at 
once  more  easy  and  more  difficult.  Instead  of  starting  with  a  standard 
pattern,  he  has  to  invent  a  web  of  rhythm  which  is  suited  to  the  sense 
he  wishes  to  convey;  and  then,  without  ever  disappointing  the  ear  of 
the  reader  by  unnecessarily  withholding  an  expected  fall  of  rhythm, 
he  must  shatter  every  inkling  of  monotony  by  continual  and  tasteful 
variation.* 

The  subject  of  prose  rhythm  is  rather  subtle  for  the  elementary 
student,  and  is  not,  therefore,  discussed  in  this  volume.  If  the 
teacher  or  a  more  advanced  student  wishes  to  take  up  the  subject, 
he  will  do  well  to  begin  with  Genung's  Working  Principles  of 
Rhetoric,  pages  210-220,  and  Lewis's  Principles  of  English  Verse, 
Chapter  I. 

"The  appeal  of  rhythm  to  the  human  ear"  is  so  "basal  and  ele 
mental"  that  it  is  acknowledged  by  the  most  primitive  man  and 
the  youngest  child.  To  the  undeveloped  mind  the  appeal  of  rhythm 
alone  is  sufficient,  without  regard  to  sense,  as  our  nursery  and  non 
sense  rimes  prove.  Children  are  pleased  with  verses  rich  in  devices 
for  securing  rhythm  and  melody,  but  absolutely  wanting  in  thought. 
Many  of  our  old  ballads  contain  meaningless  lines,  repeated  again 
and  again,  often  at  regular  intervals,  solely  for  their  movement 
and  "jingle." 

Variations  between  iambic  and  anapestic  feet  and  between 
trochaic  and  dactylic  are  particularly  common,  and  make 
no  change  in  the  rhythm,  because  the  relative  position  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables  remains  the  same.  The 

*  The  quotation  from  Hamilton  is  made  by  kind  permission  of  Doubleday, 
Page  and  Company,  publishers  of  the  book  quoted. 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  11 

anapest  and  the  dactyl  present  two  very  quick  unaccented 
syllables  for  the  longer  unaccented  one  of  the  iambus  and 
trochee;  in  the  terms  of  the  following  paragraphs,  two  eighth 
notes  for  one  quarter.  That  is,  the  meter  is  varied  without 
disturbing  the  rhythm,  which  is  secured  by  maintaining 
equal  time  intervals  between  the  accents. 

Some  persons  find  it  helpful  to  mark  the  movement  of 
poetry  with  the  musical  notation.  The  following  examples 
of  this  method  are  taken  from  Genung's  Working  Prin 
ciples  of  Rhetoric  and  Winchester's  Principles  of  Literary 
Criticism. 

The  literary  critic,  like  the  musician,  would  say  here  that 

1  J      x  |  J      x  I  J      x 

Break,  break,  break, 

N       N        I       I       I  \      \      \  1 

4444        d      |    J*      J- 

On   thy   cold,      gray  stones,      O        sea  I  ** 

1  J     J     J  |  J     J     J  |  J     J     J  |  J      J 

Half      a     league,  half      a     league   half      a     league    on   -   ward, 


J.    i  /  /IJ  J  j    J  I  J.  /  J  U    J 

*  3 

All  in    the     val  -  ley    of     death  Rode  the    six  -  hun  -  dred.* 

I  J    |  J     J  |  J    |  J    |  J     J  |  J 

Charge,  Ches  -  ter,  Charge  !     On,       Stan  -  ley,      on  !  ** 

*  Used  by  permission  of  Ginn  &  Co. 

**  Used  by  permission  of  The  Macraillan  Company. 


12  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

I    /    J.l    J       J       J        J       J        J- 

v^  3  ^ 

For  old,       uu  -  hap  -  py,     far  -   off     things.  ** 

3       N  I      N         N        I  IN  I      IS       IS       I 

4*|*          a         0  -        •     \    *       *       '  '          ' 

The  spleu-dour  falls      on      cas  -  tie  walls, 
IS  I       N         N         IS         IS         ]N         IN  I       IS         Nv 

^   I    *      *      *      *      *      *  I  * 

And    snow  -  y       sum  -  naits     old      in       sto    -  ry  ; 

/|  /    /    J.     /|  /    /    J.    i 

The      long  light  shakes     ^a  -    cross    the  lakes, 


J       ^  I 

3 


33 

And    the     wild     cat  -   a  -  ract    leaps      in       glo  -    ry. 

oi       h     h  I    1       ^^IJ       >>!!       J 
}:    J       J   •  J  -:    J       J^|J       J      J  I  J       J 

Blow,     bu  -  gle,     blow,     set      the     wild      ech  -  oes      fly   -    ing, 

J  ;>  /|/  /  /  /|  J  /i|J  ^^|J  J 

Blow,  bu  -  gle,    an  -  swer,ech  -  oes,    dy  -  ing,       dy  -  ing,        dy  -  ing.  * 

the  first  three  lines  of  The  Bugle  Song  begin  on  the  up-beat, 
and  that  the  regular  measure  begins  with  the  second  syllable 
of  each  line.  The  rests  are  convenient  representations  of 
sentence  pauses  and  metrical  pauses. 

In  iambic  movement,  the  first  syllable  of  a  line  may  be  given 
stress  by  the  use  of  a  trochee  for  the  first  measure. 

*  Used  by  permission  of  Ginn  &  Co. 

**  Used  by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Co. 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  13 

/     x      x     /        x/       x/x/ 
Seasons  \  return,  |  but  not  |  to  me  |  returns 

/      x       x       /        x       /        x   /          x       / 
Day,  or    the  sweet  |  approach  |  of  ev'n  |  or  morn. 

—  MILTON:  Paradise  Lost,  III,  41.  42. 

The  initial  trochee  has  the  effect  of  what  musicians  call  a  sharp, 
clear  "attack."  This  emphasis  of  the  first  syllable  is  particularly 
common  in  the  first  line  of  a  poem,  and  strengthens  the  opening. 

Or  such  inversion  may  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  giving  proper 
sentence-accent,  as  in  the  first  foot  of  this  line  from  Poe: 

/    x    x      /         x        /      x  x      / 
7  was  |  a  child,  |  and  she  \  was  a  child. 

—  POE:  Annabel  Lee. 

Or  the  unaccented  syllable  of  the  first  iambic  measure  may  be 
omitted,  as  in  the  first  two  lines  below: 

/        x     /      x      /          x       / 
Tow  |  ered  cit  |  ies  please  |  us  then, 

/         x     /     x     /        x      / 
And    the  bus  |  y  hum  |  of  men, 

x  /          x       /  /       x       / 

Where  throngs  |  of  knights  |  and  bar  |  ons  bold 
x       /        x       /         x/x  / 

In  weeds  |  of  peace  |  high  tri  |  umph  hold. 

—  MILTON:  U Allegro. 

We  may  say  that  a  "rest"  takes  the  place  of  this  unaccented 
syllable.  The  rest  often  occurs  for  the  unaccented  syllable  at  the 
end  of  the  line;  and  occasionally  within  the  line,  as  in 

Break,  break,  break. 

In  run-on  lines  the  rhythm  may  be  sustained  unbroken  by  the 
combination  of  a  final  incomplete  foot  with  an  initial  incomplete 
foot. 

Till  the  dirges  of  his  Hope  that  melancholy  burden  bore 
Of  "  Never  —  never  more." 

—  POE:  The  Raven. 


14  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

i     x 

Bore  of  keeps  up  the  trochaic  movement.  Since  there  is  no  pause 
after  bore  to  fill  the  place  of  the  wanting  unaccented  syllable, 
the  effect  is  probably  smoother  without  an  accent  at  the  beginning 
of  the  next  line. 

There  is  occasionally  an  extra  unaccented  syllable  at  the 
end  of  a  line,  which  produces  a  falling  cadence  after  an 
iambic  foot. 

X          /  X         /  X         /  X         /          X       / 

On  helm  |  and  har  |  ness  rings    the  Sax  |  on  hammer, 

x         /      x     /    x        /      x         /         x       / 
Through  Cimbric  forests  roars  the  Norseman's  song, 

X  /  X    /          X       /       X     /         X         / 

And  loud  |  amid    the  u  |  niver  |  sal  clamor 

X          /    X  /    X  /  X  /       X         / 

O'er  distant  desert  sounds  the  Tartar's  gong. 

-  LONGFELLOW:  The  Arsenal  at  Springfield. 

X  f          X        X       /      X          X        /     X          / 

We  thought  as  we  hollowed  his  narrow  bed, 

x  /  x         x      /      x     / 

And  smoothed  |  down  his  lone  |  ly  pillow, 

xx/xx         /xx         /xx/ 
How  the  foe  and  the  stranger  would  tread  o'er  his  head, 

x        /xx/       xx       / 
And  we  |  far  away  |  on  the  billow. 

—  WOLFE:  The  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore. 

The  meter  sometimes  requires  the  omission  of  an  unac 
cented  syllable. 

/         X        /        X        /         X  /X  /    X  /     X        /X         /     X 

Then  this  |  ebony  |  bird  be  j  guiling  |  my  sad  |  fancy  |  into  |  smiling. 

—  POE:  The  Raven. 

The  syllable  to  be  omitted  in  reading  is  left  out  in  writing 
such  words  as  o'er,  e'en. 

There  is  often  elision  of  two  vowels  coming  together  in 
successive  words. 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  15 

/    X      /       X      /    X        / 

On  a  sudden  open  fly, 

/     x      /  x  /   x     /      x      /    x         / 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound, 

x  _     /    x        /        x     /       x       /    x       / 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate 

r        /     x        /     x     /     x       /  x          / 
Harsh  thunder,  that  the  lowest  bottom  shook 
x     /  X    / 
Of  Erebus. 

—  MILTON:  Paradise  Lost,  II,  879-883. 

Not  all  accented  syllables  have  the  same  force.  Each  word 
has  its  own  natural  accent,  and  each  sentence  its  most  em 
phatic  word  or  words.  When  one  or  both  of  these  accents 
combine  with  the  metrical  accent,  the  result  is  naturally  a 
heavier  emphasis.  There  is,  therefore,  no  monotony  in  the 
effect  of  the  accents,  though  they  are  placed  regularly  in 
the  line.  Notice  particularly  in  this  connection  the  quota 
tion  from  Milton  above.  These  lines  are  marked  again  below 
for  the  variety  in  force  with  which  the  accented  syllables  are 
spoken.  1  represents  word-accent;  2,  sentence-accent; 
3,  metrical  accent. 

3     13          123     123 
On  a  sudden  open  fly, 
3  13     3       123  123         13 

With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound 

13         123  3  13         123 

Thelnfernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
123       123  3  13         13  123 

Harsh  thunder,  that  the  lowest  bottom  shook 

123     3 
Of  Erebus. 

13       123  13  123          13 

Know  then  thyself,  presume  not  God  to  scan; 

13         13       3  13         123 

The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. 


16  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  three  accents,  it  will  be  observed,  combine  to  give  the 
greatest  stress  to  the  words  most  significant  in  developing 
the  thought  of  the  passage;  the  strongest  emphasis  is  on  the 
words  that  unlock  the  thought. 

The  sentence  (i.  e.,  the  thought)  accent  may  even  contra 
dict  the  scansion,  and  thus  cause  some  variation  in  the 
" rhythmical  pattern." 

X          X         /       X       X      /  X        X    /       X  / 

And  this  maiden  she  lived  with  no  other  thought 
X      X      /         X     X      /  X     / 

But  to  love  and  be  loved  by  me. 

Here  no  and  be,  unaccented  in  meter,  receive  sentence  stress. 

/      X    X       /  X  /      X     X        / 

/  was  a  child  and  she  was  a  child. 

Moreover,  all  unaccented  syllables  are  not  equally  faint. 
In  compound  words  particularly,  and  words  originally  com 
pound,  the  unaccented  syllable  receives  considerable  stress, 
and  is  sometimes  said  to  have  " secondary  accent."  Com 
pare  cross-bow  and  government.  The  member  with  the  sec 
ondary  accent  may  even  take  the  metrical  stress. 

X  /  X  /  X         /  X         / 

Why  look'st  thou  so?  —  With  my  cross-bow 
I  shot  the  Albatross. 

—  COLERIDGE  :  The  Ancient  Mariner. 

Rarely  feet  occur  in  which  neither  syllable  is  stressed;  such  feet 
are  named  pyrrhics.  Or  perhaps  it  is  better  to  regard  them  as  hav 
ing  weak  stress  only  on  the  metrically  accented  syllable;  usually 
only  word  or  metrical  accent  without  any  sentence  stress  whatever. 

A  line  of  poetry  often  contains  a  complete  grammatical 
unit,  i.  e.j  a  phrase  or  a  clause 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  17 

A  little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing; 
Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  Spring. 

—  POPE:  Essay  on  Criticism. 

But  a  long  succession  of  lines  regularly  ending  in  a  pause 
(end-stopped  lines)  is  likely  to  be  monotonous.  The  best 
poetry  avoids  this  danger  by  using  frequent  run-on  lines, 
and  by  varying  the  position  of  the  medial  pause. 

The  chief  medial  pause  in  often  called  the  cesura.  It  may 
come  anywhere  in  the  line,  and  usually,  for  the  sake  of  va 
riety,  shifts  position  in  successive  lines. 

Seasons  return;  ||  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  ||  or  the  sweet  approach  of  ev'n  or  morn. 

-  MILTON:  Paradise  Lost,  III,  42,  43. 

It  may  even  come  within  a  foot. 

/    x    x       /    x     x        /x        x          f    x    x       I         xx. 
This  is  the  |  forest  pri  |  meval.  ||  The  |  murmuring  |  pines  and  the  | 

/     x 
hemlocks 

Read  aloud  the  following  lines  from  the  first  book  of  Para 
dise  Lost;  note  the  run-on  lines,  the  position  of  the  pauses, 
and  the  effective  sweep  of  poetic  phrasing. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  ||  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  1 1   whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  ||  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  ||  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  ||  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  Heavenly  Muse,  ||  that  on  the  secret  top 
Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  ||  didst  inspire 
That  Shepherd  ||  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed 
In  the  beginning  ||  how  the  heavens  and  earth 
Rose  out  of  chaos. 


18  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  arrangement  and  distribution  of  pauses,  end  and 
medial,  produces  the  Rhythmic  Phrase,  whose  musical, 
curves  cover  with  grace  and  beauty  the  sharp,  abrupt  angles 
of  the  metrical  skeleton.  In  the  best  poetry  the  rhythmic 
phrases  vary  constantly  in  length  and  cadence,  and  thus 
prevent  the  monotony  of  the  regular  metrical  beat  from  be 
coming  offensive.  Good  reading  brings  out  the  rhythmic 
phrasing  of  a  poem  rather  than  its  metrical  structure.  When 
the  rhythmic  phrasing  exactly  corresponds  to  the  metrical 
structure,  a  sort  of  " doggerel  verse"  is  produced,  which  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  read  without  scanning  —  a  tiresome 
and  inartistic  form.  Chaucer  makes  one  of  his  Canterbury 
pilgrims  begin  a  tale  in  "rym  dogerel,"  but  the  judge  in 
terrupts  him  and  compels  him  to  abandon  his  sing-song 
romance.  One  hesitates  to  call  the  poetry  of  Pope  by  such 
an  uncomplimentary  term  as  " doggerel,"  but  it  is  probably 
the  sense  and  not  the  sound  that  saves  it.  Our  best  artists 
in  rhythmic  phrasing  are  our  great  masters  of  blank  verse. 
Read  again  the  lines  from  Milton  quoted  above. 

The  old  Greek  rhetoricians  have  given  us  also  names  for 
lines  of  various  lengths.  A  line  of  one  foot  is  a  monometer ; 
one  of  two  feet  is  a  dimeter ;  one  of  three  is  a  trimeter ;  one 
of  four  is  a  tetrameter ;  one  of  five  a  pentameter ;  one  of  six 
a  hexameter;  one  of  seven  a  heptameter;  one  of  eight  an 
octameter. 

A  tetrameter  line  made  up  of  iambic  or  trochaic  feet  is 
said  to  be  octo-syllabic,  because  it  contains  eight  sylla 
bles.  Iambic  or  trochaic  pentameter  is  deca-syllabic  (ten- 
syllabled). 

Lines  rarely  contain  more  than  six  accents.  A  seven-foot 
measure  is  usually  written  in  two  lines,  one  of  four,  the  other 
of  three,  feet.  An  octameter  is  usually  written  as  two  te- 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  19 

trameter  lines.  Both  tetrameter  and  pentameter  are  very 
common. 

There  is  no  very  great  virtue  in  the  difficult  classic  names 
for  our  measures  and  lines.  We  may  employ,  if  we  wish, 
especially  for  convenience  in  writing,  a  simpler  symbol.  As 
an  abbreviation  for  iambic  pentameter  we  may  write  5xa; 
for  trochaic  tetrameter  4az;  for  dactylic  trimeter  3axx;  etc. 

Long  lines  naturally  give  a  slower,  more  sweeping  and 
dignified  phrasing  to  the  poem.  They  are  apt  to  be  found, 
therefore,  in  the  expression  of  thoughtful,  serious  sentiment, 
while  the  more  vivacious  short  lines  are  appropriate  for 
brighter,  livelier  composition. 

Monometer  and  dimeter  are  seldom  used  for  complete  poems, 
though  examples  are  found.  They  are  frequently  used  to  produce 
the  effect  of  echoing  the  longer  lines  that  precede  them. 

x    /   x     /      x      / 
Is  this  a  fast,  to  keep 

x      /    x      / 
The  larder  lean 

x       / 
And  clean 

x      /     x     /      x         / 
From  fat  of  veal  and  sheep? 

—  HERRICK:  To  Keep  a  True  Lent. 

See  also  Burns's  To  a  Mouse,  Wordsworth's  At  the  Grave  of  Burns, 
and  Herrick's  To  Daffodils. 

A  verse  of  six  iambic  feet  is  called  an  Alexandrine.  A  fine  ex 
ample  from  Pope  shows  its  effect. 

A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 

And,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along. 

—  Essay  on  Criticism,  II. 

The  line  of  six  feet,  in  a  poem  composed  of  pentameter  lines, 


20  STUDIES 'IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

retards  the  time,  as  the  figure  of  Pope  indicates.    He  further  retards 
by  means  of  the  spondee  "slow  length" 

2.  STANZA  AND  RIME 

Two  words  are  said  to  rime  when  they  differ  in  the  initial 
consonant  or  consonants  of  the  riming  syllables,  and  are 
identical  in  the  following  vowel  and  consonant  sounds.  Rime 
occurs  in  accented  syllables,  because  they  alone  are  con 
spicuous  enough  to  make  the  identity  of  sound  effective. 
Rime  relates  to  sound,  not  to  spelling.  The  following  words 
show  pairs  of  rimes:  run:  son  (sun);  rain:  main;  air:  fair; 
gay:  say. 

The  rime  may  include  two  syllables,  the  first  being  ac 
cented:  charming:  harming;  willow:  pillow;  any:  penny.  A 
two-syllable  rime  is  sometimes  called  a  feminine  rime,  and 
the  single-syllable  rime  is  called  masculine. 

Even  three  syllables  may  be  included  in  the  rime,  or  iden 
tity  of  sound,  the  first  of  the  three  being  accented:  tenderly: 
slenderly;  (un)  fortunate:  (im)portunate;  (uri)  dutiful:  beautiful. 

All  poets  make  use  of  imperfect  rimes,  in  which  there  is 
similarity,  but  not  absolute  identity,  between  either  the 
riming  vowel  or  the  riming  consonant (s) :  June:  moon;  home: 
come;  love:  prove;  only:  homely;  humanly:  womanly. 

An  imperfect  rime  disappoints  the  ear  of  the  reader,  and 
is  a  blemish  in  a  poem;  but  sometimes  it  is  impossible  for  a 
poet  to  avoid  the  use  of  one,  because  he  has  to  consider  sense 
and  meter  as  well  as  rime.  An  occasional  imperfect  rime 
is  hardly  noticed,  but  a  great  number  seriously  impair  the 
musical  effect  of  a  poem. 

Identical  rimes  are  rare,  and  not  as  effective  as  rimes  on 
words  with  different  consonants  preceding  the  accented 
vowel. 


THE  SHAKESPEARE  HOUSE,  STRATFORD-ON-AVON 


THE  BIRTH  ROOM 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  21 

For  some  were  hung  with  arras  green  and  blue, 

Showing  a  gaudy  summer  morn, 
Where  with  puff'd  cheek  the  belted  hunter  blew 

His  wreathed  bugle-horn. 

—  TENNYSON:  The  Palace  of  Art. 

Rime  is  useful  because  it  is  pleasing  in  itself,  and  because 
it  binds  lines  into  groups  called  stanzas. 

A  poet  may  make  any  stanza  combination  he  pleases, 
using  as  many  lines  as  he  likes,  and  arranging  the  rimes  as 
he  likes;  but  there  are  in  our  literature  a  great  many  con 
ventional  stanzas  used  by  all  poets.  Variety  in  the  stanza 
may  be  made  by  variation  in  the  meter  and  the  line-length, 
as  well  as  by  the  arrangement  of  rime. 

For  convenience  and  brevity  in  describing  rime  in  stanza 
structure,  the  end  syllables  will  here  be  represented  by  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  riming  syllables  by  the  same  letter.  The  rime- 
scheme  for  the  stanza  below  is  ababcb. 

It  was  many  and  many  a  year  ago, 

In  a  kingdom  by  the  sea, 
That  a  maiden  there  lived  whom  you  may  know, 

By  the  name  of  Annabel  Lee; 
And  this  maiden  she  lived  with  no  other  thought, 

Than  to  love  and  be  loved  by  me. 

—  POE  :  Annabel  Lee. 

The  shortest  possible  stanza  is  the  couplet  of  two  riming  lines. 

All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole, 
Whose  body  Nature  is,  and  God  the  soul. 

—  POPE:  Essay  on  Man. 

The  iambic  pentameter  couplet,  of  which  the  above  is  an  example, 
is  sometimes  called  the  heroic  couplet. 

Tennyson  in  The  Two  Voices  has  used  a  three-line  stanza,  all  the 
lines  riming. 


22  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

A  still  small  voice  spake  unto  me, 
"Thou  art  so  full  of  misery, 
Were  it  not  better  not  to  be?" 

Four-line  stanzas  are  very  common.  They  may  rime  abab,  aabb, 
abcb,  abac,  or  abba.  The  lines  may  be  of  any  length  and  any  meter. 
Often  the  lines  are  alternately  tetrameter  and  trimeter,  and  the 
four  lines  are  equivalent  to  a  couplet  in  heptameter. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

—  GRAY:  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard. 

So  runs  my  dream:  but  what  am  I? 

An  infant  crying  in  the  night: 

An  infant  crying  for  the  light: 
And  with  no  language  but  a  cry. 

—  TENNYSON:  In  Memoriam,  LIV. 

Stanzas  are  found  containing  as  many  as  twenty-four  lines,  but 
the  longer  ones  are  less  common.  Five-line  stanzas  occur  in  Cole 
ridge's  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner  and  Shelley's  To  a  Skylark; 
six-line  stanzas  in  Collins's  How  Sleep  the  Brave  and  Rossetti's 
Blessed  Damozel;  seven-line  stanzas  in  Morris's  The  Earthly  Para 
dise  and  Milton's  On  the  Morning  of  Christ's  Nativity  (Introduction) ; 
eight-line  stanzas  in  Burns's  To  Mary  in  Heaven;  nine-line  stanzas 
in  Campbell's  Battle  of  the  Baltic;  ten-line  stanzas  in  Keats's  Ode 
to  a  Grecian  Urn.  Other  examples  may  be  noted  as  they  present 
themselves  in  literature. 

A  famous  stanza  is  the  Spenserian  stanza,  invented  by 
the  poet  Spenser  for  The  Faery  Queene^  and  used  by  many 
later  poets. 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  23 

As  gentle  shepherd  in  sweet  eventide, 

When  ruddy  Phoebus  'gins  to  welke  in  west, 

High  on  a  hill,  his  flocks  to  viewen  wide, 

Marks  which  do  bite  their  hasty  supper  best, 

A  cloud  of  cumbrous  gnats  do  him  molest, 

All  striving  to  infix  their  feeble  stings, 

That  from  their  noyance  he  nowhere  can  rest, 

But  with  his  clownish  hands  their  tender  wings 

He  brusheth  oft,  and  oft  doth  mar  their  murmurings. 

—  Canto  I,  Stanza  23. 

We  count  nine  lines  in  the  stanza.  The  rime  scheme  is 
ababbcbcc.  Careful  study  shows  that  the  first  eight  lines  are 
iambic  pentameter,  and  the  ninth  is  iambic  hexameter  (an 
Alexandrine).  The  longer  line  at  the  end  gives  finish  and 
dignity  to  this  most  musical  of  stanzas. 

The  Sonnet  is  one  of  the  finest  forms  we  have  for  the  short 
poem  complete  in  one  stanza. 

Milton!  thou  should'st  be  living  at  this  hour: 

England  hath  need  of  thee;  she  is  a  fen 

Of  stagnant  waters:  altar,  sword,  and  pen, 

Fireside,  the  heroic  wealth  of  hall  and  bower, 

Have  forfeited  their  ancient  English  dower 

Of  inward  happiness.    We  are  selfish  men; 

Oh!  raise  us  up,  return  to  us  again; 

And  give  us  manners,  virtue,  freedom,  power. 

Thy  soul  was  like  a  star,  and  dwelt  apart : 

Thou  hadst  a  voice  whose  sound  was  like  the  sea: 

Pure  as  the  naked  heavens,  majestic,  free, 

So  didst  thou  travel  on  life's  common  way, 

In  cheerful  godliness;  and  yet  thy  heart 

The  lowliest  duties  on  herself  did  lay. 

—  WORDSWORTH. 

If  you  scan  this  sonnet,  you  will  find  that  all  the  lines  are 
iambic  pentameter.     The  rime-scheme  is  abbaabba  cddece. 


24  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  fourteen  lines  of  the  sonnet  are  divided  into  two  parts 
of  eight  and  six  lines  —  the  octave  and  the  sestet.  This 
division  is  indicated  by  the  change  of  rime,  the  octave 
containing  ab  and  the  sestet  cde.  The  change  is  justified 
by  a  turn  in  the  thought.  In  the  octave  of  this  sonnet  Words 
worth  discusses  the  need  in  the  England  of  his  day  for  men 
like  Milton;  in  the  sestet  he  speaks  of  the  character  of  Milton. 
The  rime  in  the  octave  of  a  sonnet  is  usually  abbaabba,  rarely 
other  arrangements  of  ab.  The  rime  in  the  sestet  may  be 
any  arrangement  of  cde  chosen  by  the  poet. 

The  Shakespearian  " sonnet"  is  not  properly  a  sonnet 
at  all,  but  a  fourteen-line  poem  made  up  of  three  quatrains 
and  a  couplet.  The  third  quatrain  often  shows  a  turn  in  the 
thought,  and  the  couplet  gives  the  climax  or  application  of 
the  first  twelve  lines.  The  rime-scheme  is  abab  cdcd  efef  gg. 

Shall  I  compare  thee  to  a  summer's  day? 
Thou  art  more  lovely  and  more  temperate. 
Rough  winds  do  shake  the  darling  buds  of  May, 
And  summer's  lease  hath  all  too  short  a  date: 
Sometimes  too  hot  the  eye  of  heaven  shines, 
And  often  is  his  gold  complexion  dimmed; 
And  every  fair  from  fair  sometimes  declines, 
By  chance  or  nature's  changing  course  untrimmed; 
But  thy  eternal  summer  shall  not  fade, 
Nor  lose  possession  of  that  fair  thou  owest, 
Nor  shall  death  brag  thou  wander'st  in  his  shade, 
When  in  eternal  lines  to  time  thou  grow'st; 
So  long  as  men  can  breathe,  or  eyes  can  see, 
So  long  lives  this,  and  this  gives  life  to  thee. 

—  Sonnet  XIII. 

Observe  the  turn  of  thought  as  shown  by  "but"  at  the  be 
ginning  of  the  ninth  line.  The  couplet  expresses  the  poet's 
wish  to  preserve  forever  in  his  sonnets  the  fame  of  his  friend. 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  25 

Some  of  the  finest  and  most  dignified  poetry  in  English 
literature  is  written  in  Blank  Verse,  that  is,  verse  without 
rime.  Iambic  pentameter  is  used  in  regular  blank  verse. 
Since  there  is  no  rime,  the  lines  are  arranged,  not  in  stanzas, 
but  in  paragraphs  that  correspond  to  the  outline  of  the 
thought.  Blank  verse  has  been  used  by  Milton  in  his  epics, 
by  Shakespeare  and  other  dramatists,  by  Tennyson  in  some 
of  his  longer  poems,  by  Bryant  in  his  best  nature  poems,  and 
by  many  other  English  poets  who  have  treated  sublime  and 
profound  themes.  It  is  particularly  suitable  for  such  themes 
because,  not  calling  attention  by  rime  to  the  end  of  the  lines, 
it  admits  of  longer,  more  sweeping  rhythmic  phrasing. 

Poetry  with  rime  is  occasionally  written  in  paragraphs  (topic 
divisions)  instead  of  stanzas  (rime-scheme  divisions).  See  Long 
fellow's  Building  of  the  Ship  and  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 
There  is  rime  in  these  poems,  but  no  fixed  and  repeated  rime-scheme 
to  bind  the  lines  into  formal  stanzas. 

Blank  verse  must  by  no  means  be  considered  a  form  of  prose. 
Though  it  has  no  rime,  it  has  all  the  metrical  construction  of  poetry, 
and  in  every  other  respect  follows  poetic  conventions. 

3.  THE  KINDS  OF  POETRY 

Poetry  is  divided  according  to  its  subject-matter  into  sev 
eral  kinds. 

1.  The  Narrative  Poem  is  written  to  tell  a  story.  It  may 
relate  legends  of  persons,  of  places,  or  of  nations;  it  may  tell 
stories  from  real  life,  or  those  furnished  by  the  imagination. 
Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King  and  Enoch  Arden,  Longfellow's 
Evangeline,  Hiawatha,  and  Miles  Standish  are  examples  of 
narrative  poetry. 

An  important  kind  of  narrative  poetry  is  the  Epic.    Some 


26  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

epics  are  the  product  of  primitive  peoples,  survivals  of  the 
life  and  thought  of  a  pre-historic  age.  Such  are  the  Greek 
Iliad  and  the  Old  English  Beowulf.  These  unite  into  one 
poem  legends  and  myths  perhaps  sung  as  short  and  separate 
hymns  by  the  tribes  at  their  festivals  and  dances.  The 
joining  was  probably  done  by  a  single  poet  after  the  tribe 
had  gained  some  degree  of  culture.  Other  epics,  as  Virgil's 
dEneid  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  are  the  work  of  one  poet 
living  in  a  time  of  culture,  who  has  turned  a  legend  of  na 
tional  or  ecclesiastical  interest  into  a  noble  poem. 

Ballads  are  short  narrative  poems  that  have  grown  up 
among  the  people  in  a  primitive  state  of  society.  The  real 
folk-ballad  was  probably  a  chant  with  a  refrain,  an  accom 
paniment  to  a  dance.  Its  subject  would  naturally  be  an 
event  of  tribal  or  local  interest  —  the  deed  of  a  hero,  the 
manifestation  of  the  supernatural  in  ghosts  or  elves,  etc.,  etc. 
Since  these  folk-songs  grew  up  before  the  tribe  could  write, 
we  have  no  ballads  in  their  earliest  form,  just  as  we  have 
not  the  earliest  form  of  any  folk-epic.  Our  oldest  English 
ballads  deal  with  chivalry  and  legends  of  history,  with 
the  supernatural,  with  love,  with  personal  prowess,  and 
with  tragic  themes.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  are  those 
that  tell  of  the  deeds  of  Robin  Hood  and  of  the  border  wars 
between  England  and  Scotland.  Just  as  some  culture  poets 
have  imitated  the  early  epic  form,  many  modern  poets  have 
written  ballads.  Cowper's  John  Gilpin,  Longfellow's  Skele 
ton  in  Armor,  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  are  examples 
of  the  modern  ballad. 

2.  A  Drama  is  written  to  be  acted  on  the  stage.  It  may  be 
in  prose  or  in  poetry,  or  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  poetry. 
It  may  be  in  riming  poetry  or  in  blank  verse.  Shakespeare's 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream  contains  prose,  short  riming  lines, 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  27 

longer  riming  lines,  and  blank  verse.  It  is  interesting  to 
study  the  play  to  find  out  why  the  poet  used  each  form  of 
expression  as  he  did. 

The  dramatic  form  is  too  complicated  to  be  studied  thor 
oughly  in  a  short,  general  treatise,  but  we  may  define  here 
briefly  the  two  great  moods  of  the  drama  —  tragedy  and 
comedy. 

Tragedy  presents  a  human  being  in  conflict  with  a  force 
that  is  too  strong  for  him  and  finally  causes  his  overthrow. 
This  overwhelming  force  may  be  the  outcome  of  his  own  sin, 
as  in  Macbeth,  where  the  hero  sealed  his  own  doom,  physical 
as  well  as  moral,  when  he  murdered  Duncan  and  drove  Dun 
can's  son  to  England,  to  return  with  an  avenging  army. 
Or  the  destroying  force  may  be  the  result  of  the  hero's  error; 
Othello  was  the  victim  of  a  mistaken  jealousy.  But  however 
the  force  may  be  awakened,  the  end  of  tragedy  is  disaster. 

In  Comedy  the  danger  is  only  apparent,  or,  at  any  rate, 
not  overwhelming.  The  end  of  comedy  is  a  happy  solution 
of  the  difficulties  of  the  hero.  If  any  person  meets  disaster, 
it  is  the  villain,  at  whose  overthrow  we  are  pleased.  Since 
comedy  does  not  move  us  to  "pity  or  terror,"  it  may  prop 
erly  contain  much  that  is  laughable.  A  comedy  is  often  the 
working  out,  through  a  series  of  blunders,  of  an  amusingly 
perplexing  situation,  as  Shakespeare's  Comedy  of  Errors.  It 
often  presents  droll  characters,  as  Mrs.  Malaprop,  in  Sheri 
dan's  Rivals.  Yet  some  of  our  best  comedy  is  not  particularly 
laughable ;  it  is  simply  the  development  to  a  happy  conclusion 
of  a  situation  more  or  less  complex. 

A  tragedy  may,  for  particular  reasons,  contain  laughable  scenes. 
See  De  Quincey's  On  the  Knocking  at  the  Gate  in  Macbeth. 

Occasionally  a  work  written  in  dramatic  form  is  not  suited  to 


28  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

presentation  on  the  stage,  usually  because  it  involves  too  little  ac 
tion.    Such  a  piece  is  called  a  "  closet  drama." 

3.  Lyric  poetry  is  the  immediate  expression  of  the  feeling  of 
the  poet  —  his  desire,  his  love,  his  hope,  his  fear,  his  grief. 
The  early  lyrics  were  sung  —  as  indeed  was  early  poetry  of 
other  kinds  —  by  a  minstrel  to  the  accompaniment  of  the 
lyre;  hence  the  term  lyric.    Lyric  poems  are  usually  short;  or 
a  long  lyric  may  be  composed  of  a  series  of  short  poems,  as 
Tennyson's  In  Memoriam.    The  reason  for  briefness  is  that 
intense   emotion   cannot   be   long   sustained.      Descriptive, 
meditative  poetry  is  usually  of  lyric  character,  e.  g.,  Bryant's 
nature  poems. 

The  most  dignified  lyric  is  the  Ode.  With  sustained  dignity 
it  expresses  emotions  profound  and  exalted,  and  deals  with 
some  elevated  subject,  as  a  national  celebration  or  an  im 
portant  anniversary.  Though  the  ancient  ode  was  of  per 
fectly  regular  construction,  the  English  ode  is  generally 
irregular  in  length  of  line  and  stanza,  and  in  arrangement  of 
rime.  Some  excellent  English  odes  are  Dryden's  Alexander's 
Feast,  Wordsworth's  Ode  on  Intimations  of  Immortality, 
Lowell's  Commemoration  Ode.  A  stanza  of  an  ode  is  often 
called  a  strophe. 

4.  A  Didactic  poem  appeals  more  to  the  intellect  than  a 
lyric,  which  is  strongly  emotional.    Didactic  poetry  cannot, 
therefore,  be  the  highest  kind,  since  the  appeal  of  poetry  is 
not  merely  to  the   intellect.      Pope's  Essay  on  Man  deals 
with  philosophical  questions;  his  Essay  on  Criticism  with 
rules  of  rhetoric  and  literary  criticism.    A  didactic  poem 
may  have  for  its  subject  a  political  question,  as  the  political 
satires  of  Dryden.     It  may  express  party  or  class  spirit,  as 
Butler's  Hudibras,  a  satire  on  Puritanism. 


THE  FORMS  OF  POETRY  29 

AN  EXERCISE  ON  METER  AND  STANZA 
Study  meter  and  stanza  forms  in  the  following  poems. 

1.  Whittier,  Maud  Mutter. 

2.  Whittier,  The  Barefoot  Boy. 

3.  Bryant,  Green  River. 

4.  Longfellow,  The  Village  Blacksmith. 

5.  Longfellow,  The  Children's  Hour. 

6.  Longfellow,  Three  Friends  of  Mine. 

7.  Longfellow,  My  Lost  Youth. 

8.  Poe,  Annabel  Lee. 

9.  Poe,  The  Haunted  Palace. 

10.  Shelley,  The  Cloud. 

11.  Thomas  Hood,  The  Bridge  of  Sighs. 

12.  Thomas  Hood,  The  Song  of  the  Shirt. 

13.  Walter  Scott,  Lochinvar. 

14.  Caroline  E.  Norton,  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

15.  Longfellow's  Sonnets:  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Keats,  The 
Sound  of  the  Sea,  In  the  Churchyard  at  Tarrytown,  Eliot's  Oak,  To  the 
River  Rhone,  The  Three  Silences  of  Molinos,  Wapentake. 


CHAPTER  III 

MELODY  AND   HARMONY 

1.  MELODY 

Since  poetry  is  intended  to  give  the  reader  pleasure,  the 
poet  must  take  some  pains  to  use  words  that  are  musical 
and  agreeable.  A  passage  has  Melody  when  it  is  musical  and 
pleasing  in  sound. 

Some  sounds  are  in  their  nature  less  pleasing  than  others. 
The  explosive  consonants  (as  d,  t,  b,  g,  k)  are  more  abrupt 
than  the  spirants  (as  s,  f,  v),  and  are  apt  to  produce  a  hur 
ried,  staccato,  sometimes  even  a  rather  harsh  effect.  The 
spirants,  and  especially  the  liquids  (I,  m,  n,  r),  are  easily 
prolonged,  and  blend  with  the  following  sounds;  they  give 
the  verse  a  smooth,  flowing,  legato  effect.  Notice  the  pre 
dominance  of  liquids  and  spirants  in  these  lines  from  Words 
worth's  T  intern  Abbey: 

Whose  dwelling  is  the  light  of  setting  suns, 
And  the  round  ocean,  and  the  living  air, 
And  the  blue  sky,  and  in  the  mind  of  man. 

Poe,  who  studied  sound  effects  carefully,  says  that  he 
chose  ''Nevermore"  as  the  refrain  for  The  Raven  largely 
because  the  word  contains  the  most  sonorous  vowel,  o,  and 
the  most  "producible"  consonant,  r.  An  amusing  story 
is  told  of  an  Italian  lady  who  knew  not  a,  word  of  English, 

30 


MELODY  AND  HARMONY  31 

but  who,  when  she  heard  the  word  cellar-door,  was  convinced 
that  English  must  be  a  most  musical  language.  If  the  word 
were  not  in  our  minds  hopelessly  attached  to  a  humble 
significance,  we,  too,  might  be  charmed  by  its  combination 
of  spirant,  liquids,  and  vowels. 

Words  which  contain  awkward  combinations  are  avoided 
in  literary  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry  (sixthly,  pledged,  etc.). 

Authors  are  careful,  likewise,  to  make  pleasant  combina 
tions  in  adjacent  words. 

Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes. 

—  BEN  JONSON. 

Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord. 

—  MRS.  JULIA  WARD  HOWE. 

These  combinations  are  much  more  agreeable  than  my  eyes 
and  thy  eyes  would  be,  because  n  separates  the  vowel  sounds 
in  the  adjacent  words.  Tennyson  never  ceased  to  regret 
one  of  his  earlier  verses  in  which  the  letter  s  was  awkwardly 
used  in  three  successive  words. 

In  such  great  offices  as  suit 

The  full-grown  energies  of  heaven. 

The  following  are  a  few  devices  occasionally  used  by  poets, 
some  of  them  by  writers  of  prose,  to  add  to  melodic  effect. 

Alliteration  is  the  linking  of  neighboring  accented  syllables 
by  the  recurrence  of  the  same  initial  consonant  sound.  The 
sound  must  be  the  same,  though  the  letter  may  be  different  : 
cellar:  said;  fceep:  can.  The  words  must  be  so  near  to 
gether  that  the  sound  carries  over  from  one  to  the  other 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader,  or  no  effect  is  produced. 


32  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls, 
And  snowy  summits  old  in  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  Zakes, 
And  the  wild  cataract  Zeaps  in  glory. 

—  TENNYSON:  The  Bugle  Song. 

The  alliteration  may  change  quickly. 

The  Zisp  of  Zeaves  and  ripple  of  rain. 

—  SWINBURNE. 

We  sometimes  find  "cross  alliteration." 

I  come  from  daunts  of  coot  and  Aern. 

—  TENNYSON:  The  Brook. 

Assonance  means  the  linking  of  neighboring  words  by  the 
recurrence  of  the  vowel  sound  in  their  accented  syllables. 
We  need  to  have  a  keen  ear  for  the  sound  recurrence,  since 
the  spelling  often  disguises  it  to  the  eye. 

So  all  day  long  the  noise  of  battle  rolled. 

—  TENNYSON:  The  Passing  of  Arthur. 

From  the  molten-golden  notes. 

—  POE:  The  Bells. 

Internal  Rime  is  used  for  its  musical  effect. 

The  splendor  falls  on  castle  watts. 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 

—  TENNYSON:  The  Bugle  Song. 

My  wing  is  king  of  the  summer  time. 

—  LANIER:  Tampa  Robins. 

When  the  end  of  a  line  rimes  with  the  middle,  as  in  the 
quotation  from  Tennyson,  the  long  line  has  the  effect  of 


MELODY  AND  HARMONY  33 

two  short  ones.  A  person  could  not  tell  from  the  sound 
whether  such  a  line  were  written  in  one  tetrameter  or  in 
two  dimeters. 

Repetition  of  words  and  phrases  is  often  melodious,  and 
strengthens  their  effect.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  a 
refrain  repeated  at  the  end  of  each  of  a  series  of  stanzas. 
Poe's  Raven  would  not  be  nearly  as  effective  a  poem  if 
it  were  not  for  the  insistent  and  melancholy  "Nevermore" 
at  the  close  of  each  stanza.  Read  aloud  Longfellow's  Old 
Clock  on  the  Stairs,  and  observe  the  return  of  the  striking 

Forever  —  never; 
Never  —  forever. 

The  repetition  of  to-morrow  in  the  following  line  emphasizes 
the  notion,  and  imitates  the  slow,  monotonous  passage  of 
time  to  one  who  has  lost  his  pleasure  in  living. 

To-morrow,  and  to-morrow,  and  to-morrow, 
Creeps  in  this  petty  pace  from  day  to  day, 
To  the  last  syllable  of  recorded  time; 
And  all  our  yesterdays  have  lighted  fools 
The  way  to  dusty  death. 

—  SHAKESPEARE  :  Macbeth,  V,  5. 

Both  repetition  and  internal  rime  are  used  in: 

And  the  same  rose  blows,  and  the  same  sun  glows, 
And  the  same  brook  sings  of  a  year  ago. 

—  WHITTIER:  Telling  the  Bees. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  melody,  R.  L.  Stevenson's 
essay  on  Style  in  Literature  is  interesting,  as  the  thought  of  a  master 
of  melody  and  style. 


34  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

2.  HARMONY 

Under  melody  we  have  considered  the  musical  quality  of  words 
and  phrases  and  sentences,  without  regard  to  the  thoughts  they 
express.  Under  Harmony  we  shall  consider  the  suitability  of  the 
sound  to  the  thought. 

Harmony,  or  fitness,  is  a  higher  principle  than  mere  melody, 
or  agreeableness.  Even  harsh  or  abrupt  sounds  may  be  effective  in 
the  description  of  harsh  noises  or  strong  passions.  The  expression 
is  best  that  best  helps  the  reader's  imagination  to  grasp  the  thought 
of  the  writer,  and  to  feel  the  effect  intended.  This  principle  of 
writing  is  well  stated  in  the  lines  of  Pope.  (Essay  on  Criticism, 
Book  II.) 

But  true  expression,  like  th'  unchanging  sun, 
Clears  and  improves  whate'er  it  shines  upon, 
It  gilds  all  objects,  but  it  alters  none. 
Expression  is  the  dress  of  thought,  and  still 
Appears  more  decent  as  more  suitable; 
A  vile  conceit  in  pompous  words  expressed, 
Is  like  a  clown  in  regal  purple  dressed: 
For  diff'rent  styles  with  diff'rent  subjects  sort, 
As  sev'ral  garbs  with  country,  town,  and  court. 
******** 

'Tis  not  enough  no  harshness  gives  offense, 
The  sound  must  seem  an  echo  to  the  sense. 

The  contrasting  couplets  below  follow  excellently  well 
the  advice  they  give.  Read  them  aloud,  and  note  the  allitera 
tion  of  the  flowing  spirants  and  the  swift  movement  in 
I  and  IV,  and  the  pauses  and  difficult  combinations  that 
make  II  and  III  slow  and  heavy. 

I  Soft  is  the  strain  when  zephyr  gently  blows, 

And  the  smooth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows; 
II  But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore, 
The  hoarse,  rough  verse  should  like  a  torrent  roar. 


MELODY  AND  HARMONY  35 

III  When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line,  too,  labours,  and  the  words  move  slow; 

IV  Not  so  when  swift  Camilla  scours  the  plain, 

Flies  o'er  the  unbending  corn,  and  skims  along  the  main. 

Milton,  in  the  second  book  of  Paradise  Lost,  suggests  the 
harsh  grating  of  the  doors  of  hell : 

On  a  sudden  open  fly, 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound, 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder. 

The  utter  desolation  of  the  Ancient  Mariner  is  suggested 
by  the  pauses  and  the  long,  resonant  vowels  in  Coleridge's : 

Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone, 
Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea. 

Read  aloud  the  following  paragraph  from  Irving's  West 
minster  Abbey.  Observe  the  sonorous  majesty  of  the  words 
that  describe  the  organ  music,  and  the  pure  melody  of  those 
that  describe  the  clear  voices  of  the  choir.  His  description 
contains  many  of  the  adornments  more  common  to  poetry 
than  to  prose,  for  the  paragrapn  is  written  with  a  poetic 
purpose,  i.  e.,  to  elevate  and  refine  us  through  our  sympathy 
with  the  beautiful.  Notice  especially  the  use  of  alliteration. 

Suddenly  the  notes  of  the  deep-laboring  organ  burst  upon  the  ear, 
falling  with  doubled  and  re-doubled  intensity,  and  rolling,  as  it  were, 
huge  billows  of  sound.  How  well  do  their  volume  and  grandeur  accord 
with  this  mighty  building!  With  what  pomp  do  they  swell  through  its 
vast  vaults,  and  breathe  their  awful  harmony  through  these  caves  of 
death,  and  make  the  silent  sepulchre  vocal!  And  now  they  rise  in 
triumph  and  acclamation,  heaving  higher  and  higher  their -accordant 
notes,  and  piling  sound  on  sound.  —  And  now  they  pause,  and  the  soft 
voices  of  the  choir  break  out  into  sweet  gushes  of  melody;  they  soar 


36  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

aloft  and  warble  along  the  roof,  and  seem  to  play  about  these  lofty 
vaults  like  the  pure  airs  of  heaven.  —  Again  the  pealing  organ  heaves  its 
thrilling  thunders,  compressing  air  into  music  and  rolling  it  forth  on 
the  soul.  What  long-drawn  cadences!  What  solemn,  sweeping  con 
cords!  It  grows  more  and  more  dense  and  powerful,  —  it  fills  the  vast 
pile,  and  seems  to  jar  the  very  walls  —  the  ear  is  stunned  —  the  senses 
are  overwhelmed.  And  now  it  is  winding  up  in  full  jubilee  —  it  is 
rising  from  the  earth  to  heaven  —  the  very  soul  seems  rapt  away,  and 
floated  upwards  on  this  swelling  tide  of  harmony. 

Some  of  the  devices  named  under  melody  may  be  used 
for  sound  suggestion  rather  than  for  musical  effect.  For  ex 
ample,  alliteration  of  explosives  is  not  always  musical;  it 
may  be  suggestive  of  irregularity  or  harshness. 

What  a  Zale  of  terror  now  their  hirbulency  tells! 

-POE:  The  Bells. 

Certain  words  are,  in  their  own  sound,  imitative  of  the 
sounds  they  name:  buzz,  hiss,  whiz,  rush,  tinkle,  murmur, 
rumble,  rattle.  These  are  Onomatopoetic  words.  They 
are  vivid  because  they  bring  clearly  to  the  imagination  the 
sound  of  which  the  author  is  writing. 

How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle. 

-POE:  The  Bells. 

How  they  clang,  and  clash,  and  roar. 

-POE:  The  Bells. 

Whole  lines  or  sentences  may  be  imitative. 

I  galloped,  Dirck  galloped,  we  galloped  all  three. 

—  BROWNING:  How  They  Brought  the  Good  News. 

That  toward  Caunterbury  wolden  ride. 

—  CHAUCER:  Prologue. 


MELODY  AND  HARMONY  37 

Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar, 

Or  chirps  the  grasshopper  one  goodnight 'carol  more. 

-  BYRON:  Childe  Harold,  III,  86. 

The  last  example  shows  also  onomatopoea  in  the  word  chirps. 

A  more  subtle  study  is  that  of  vowel  quality,  on  which  de 
pends  the  tone-color  of  a  poem.  This  subject  can  hardly  be 
discussed  apart  from  examples  of  some  length.  One  of  the 
best  poems  in  the  English  language  for  such  study  is  Poe's 
Bells.  In  preparation  for  the  study  of  this  poem,  it  may  be 
said  here  that  the  vowels  made  in  the  front  of  the  mouth 
(e,  i)  are  light,  and  produce  a  tone-color  bright  and  gay;  while 
the  vowels  made  far  back  in  the  mouth  (a,  o,  u)  are  more 
sonorous,  and  produce  a  more  serious  effect.  Compare 
tinkle  and  toll.  The  explanation  is  purely  physiological. 
When  we  speak  the  front  vowels,  we  do  not  use  fully  the 
resonance  cavities  of  the  head,  and  the  sounds  are  not, 
therefore,  sonorous.  When  we  speak  the  back  vowels, we  do 
use  the  resonance  cavities,  and  the  sounds  are  deeper  and 
fuller. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  meter,  rime,  melody,  and 
harmony,  it  is  clear  that  an  author,  particularly  a  poet,  in 
tends  to  produce  his  effect  on  our  minds  and  emotions  partly 
through  sound.  Literature  is,  then,  addressed  partly  through 
the  ear  to  the  intellect  and  feelings,  and  we  cannot  enjoy  it 
properly  through  the  eye  alone.  Literary  prose  and  all 
poetry  must  be  read  aloud  if  we  are  to  feel  its  full  power. 
Poetry,  however,  is  not  to  be  scanned  in  reading.  Scanning 
emphasizes  the  metrical  frame-work.  By  varying  the  ac 
cent,  by  observing  proper  pauses,  by  phrasing,  a  good  reader 
of  poetry  builds  upon  this  metrical  framework,  so  that  to 
the  ear  is  presented  a  finished  and  beautiful  musical  struc 
ture. 


38  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

AN  EXERCISE  ON  METER,  MELODY,  AND  HARMONY 

1.  Poe:  The  Bells.    See  the  study  printed  later. 

2.  Bungay:  Creeds  of  the  Bells. 

3.  Poe:  The  Raven.    See  the  study  in  this  volume. 

4.  Holmes:  The  Last  Leaf. 

5.  Lanier:  The  Song  of  the  Chattahoochee.    See  the  study  printed  in 
this  volume. 

6.  Emerson:  The  Humble-Bee.     Note  the  effect  of  the  short  lines; 
the  use  of  z  and  the  humming  sounds. 

7.  Finch:  The  Patriot  Spy. 

8.  Read,  Thomas  Buchanan:  Drifting.     Note  the  effect  of  long 
vowels  and  frequent  rimes. 

9.  Bryant:  Robert  of  Lincoln. 

10.  Trowbridge:  The  Charcoal  Man. 

11.  Trowbridge:  Evening  at  the  Farm. 

12.  Shelley:  The  Skylark. 

13.  Dryden:  A  Song  for  St.  Cecilia' s  Day. 

14.  Dryden:  Alexander's  Feast. 

15.  Southey:  The  Cataract  of  Lodore. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE   SENTENCE 

1.  LOOSE  AND  PERIODIC  SENTENCES 

The  English  language,  being  practically  uninflected,  shows 
the  relation  of  words  chiefly  by  their  position  in  the  sentence. 
The  usual  order  is:  the  subject  and  its  modifiers  plus  the 
verb,  its  complement,  and  its  modifiers.  A  sentence  of  this 
common  type,  used  in  many  rhetorics,  is:  "We  came  to  our 
journey's  end,  at  last,  after  much  fatigue,  with  no  small 
difficulty,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  weather." 

Sentences  like  this,  producing  the  effect  of  anti-climax 
because  subordinate  elements  follow  main  elements,  are 
called  Loose.  Such  sentences  might  be  ended  before  the 
actual  period  occurs;  the  one  quoted  might  close  after  endj 
last,  fatigue,  or  difficulty. 

For  greater  effect  this  sentence  may  be  arranged  to  pro 
duce  a  climax;  that  is,  the  main  parts  may  be  put  last.  "At 
last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  after  great  fatigue,  through 
deep  roads  and  bad  weather,  we  came  to  our  journey's  end." 
This  sentence  cannot  be  ended  before  the  final  words.  The 
meaning  is  held  in  suspense,  and  the  mind  is  kept  expectant 
to  the  very  end.  This  is  a  Periodic  sentence. 

Other  examples  of  the  periodic  sentence  often  cited  are  the 
following : 

In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  clouds  and 

39 


40  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

storms  had  come,  when  the  gay,  sensuous  pagan  life  was  gone,  when  men 
were  not  living  by  the  senses  and  the  understanding,  when  they  were 
looking  for  the  speedy  coming  of  Anti-Christ,  there  appeared  in  Italy,  to 
the  north  of  Rome,  in  the  beautiful  Umbrian  country,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Apennines,  a  figure  of  most  magical  power  and  charm  —  St.  Francis. 

—  MATTHEW  ARNOLD. 
Ere  man  learned 

To  hew  the  shaft,  and  lay  the  architrave, 
And  spread  the  roof  above  them,  —  ere  he  framed 
The  lofty  vault,  to  gather  and  roll  back 
The  sound  of  anthems;  in  the  darkling  wood, 
Amid  the  cool  and  silence,  he  knelt  down, 
And  offered  to  the  Mightiest  solemn  thanks 
And  supplication. 

—  BRYANT:  A  Forest  Hymn. 

In  reading  the  periodic  sentence,  one  notes  the  effect  of 
climax,  and  the  superiority  of  this  form  over  the  loose  in 
dignity,  strength,  and  weight.  Since,  however,  the  periodic 
form  is  a  departure  from  the  usual  English  word-order 
and  a  device  to  secure  an  effect,  it  would  be  undesirable  to 
make  all  the  sentences  of  a  composition  periodic.  Moreover, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  make  some  sentences  strictly 
periodic.  We  may  say,  however,  that  a  writer  has  a  "  periodic 
style"  when  he  frequently  places  the  more  important  parts 
of  the  sentence  after  the  subordinate  parts,  and  thus  secures 
the  effect  of  sentence  climax.  The  following  sentence  is  not 
strictly  periodic,  because  a  time  clause  occurs  after  the  main 
part  of  the  sentence;  yet  the  main  verbs  (go  and  list)  are 
held  so  long  in  suspense  that  the  sentence  has  the  power  and 
dignity  of  one  truly  periodic. 

When  thoughts 

Of  the  last  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 
Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 
Of  the  stern  agony,  and  shroud,  and  pall, 


THE  SENTENCE  41 

And  breathless  darkness,  and  the  narrow  house, 
Make  thee  to  shudder,  and  grow  sick  at  heart;  — 
Go  forth  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 
To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around  — 
Earth  and  her  waters  and  the  depths  of  air  — 
Comes  a  still  voice. 

—  BRYANT:  Thanatopsis. 

2.  SENTENCE  INVERSION 

Any  element  out  of  its  usual  place  in  the  sentence  attracts 
attention,  and  therefore  gains  force. 

In  the  following  sentences,  the  predicates  (in  whole  or  in 
part)  stand  before  the  subjects.  Note  the  emphasis  given 
the  first  words. 

Down  dropped  the  thermometer! 

Up  you  go! 

There  goes  the  express! 

Not  once  was  he  defeated. 

Him  they  loved. 

Flashed  all  their  sabres  bare. 

Observe  the  strong  emotional  effect  gained  by  beginning 
the  following  sentences  with  their  predicate  adjectives. 

Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 

Fallen,  fallen  is  Babylon  the  great. 

Fair  as  a  summer  dream  was  Margaret. 

Great  is  the  mystery  of  space,  greater  is  the  mystery  of  time. 

Occasionally  the  inversion  is  made  to  secure  coherence 
between  two  sentences. 


42  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

His  friends  took  the  necessary  steps  for  placing  him  as  an  appren 
tice  at  some  shop-keeper's  in  Penrith.  This  he  looked  upon  as  an  in 
dignity.  (Quoted  from  Genung's  Rhetoric.) 

Thus  is  the  law  of  progress  secured. 

—  CARLYLE  :  Sartor  Resartus. 

3.  LONG  AND  SHORT  SENTENCES 

Some  writers  incline  to  very  long  sentences,  some  to 
shorter  ones;  most  writers  mix  long  and  short  sentences,  for 
variety,  and  as  the  effects  they  desire  to  produce  require 
the  one  or  the  other. 

Statements  are  often  more  easily  understood  when  made 
in  a  succession  of  short  sentences  than  when  made  in  one 
long  involved  sentence.  Short  sentences  make  the  style 
lively  and  animated.  But  too  many  of  them  in  succession  are 
abrupt,  monotonous,  and  tiresome.  The  short  sentence 
makes  a  bald  statement,  without  modification,  and  is,  there 
fore,  likely  to  present  a  one-sided  or  incomplete  view.  See 
the  study  of  Emerson's  Essays  in  this  volume. 

Long  sentences  have  more  dignity  than  short  ones,  and 
give  a  fine  opportunity  for  climax.  In  the  hands  of  the  most 
skillful  writers  they  produce  a  long  sweep  of  rhythmic  phras 
ing.  A  writer  in  the  "periodic  style"  generally  uses  long 
sentences,  elaborately  constructed,  holding  a  "  flock  of 
clauses"  in  suspense,  and  moving  with  stately  rhythm 
(Minto) .  See  the  examples  from  Arnold  and  Bryant  above. 

4.  THE  BALANCED  CONSTRUCTION 

When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  similar  in 
form  and  weight,  they  are  said  to  be  Balanced. 

The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  firmament  showeth 
his  handiwork. 


THE  SENTENCE  43 

Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto  night  showeth  knowl 
edge. 

These  verses  are  taken  from  the  Nineteenth  Psalm.  Bal 
ance  was  a  regular  device  in  Hebrew  poetry,  and  there  is  a 
strong  rhythm  to  our  translation  of  it  into  balanced  sen 
tences.  Read  through  the  Nineteenth  Psalm  and  find  all 
the  balanced  sentences  in  it. 

The  examples  given  above  show  balance  in  the  clauses  of 
a  compound  sentence.  We  find  also  balance  of  phrases,  of 
infinitives,  and  of  subordinate  clauses.  Series  of  phrases  or 
clauses  give 'the  effect  of  balance. 

Studies  serve  for  delight,  for  ornament,  and  for  ability.  —  To  spend  too 
much  time  in  studies  is  sloth;  to  use  them  too  much  for  ornament  is  affec 
tation;  to  make  judgment  wholly  by  their  rules  is  the  humor  of  a  scholar. 

—  BACON:  Of  Studies. 

They  ascribed  every  event  to  the  will  of  a  Great  Being,  for  whose 
power  nothing  was  too  vast,  for  whose  inspection  nothing  was  too  minute. 

—  MACAULAY. 

It  will  be  observed  (see  the  series  of  clauses  in  the  quo 
tation  from  Bacon)  that  if  one  member  of  the  series  is  a  little 
longer  or  otherwise  more  weighty  than  the  others,  it  is  placed 
at  the  end,  to  secure  the  effect  of  climax. 

Balance  is  very  often  employed  to  express  Antithesis 
(contrast;  one  thing  set  over  against  another).  The  balance 
gives  force  to  the  contrast.  The  conjunction  between  the 
balanced  clauses  or  phrases  in  antithetical  expression  is  the 
adversative  but. 

Blessings  are  upon  the  head  of  the  just,  but  violence  covereth  the 
mouth  of  the  wicked.  —  The  Psalms. 


44  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

If  you  would  make  one  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to 
diminish  his  desires. 

The  Puritans  hated  bear-baiting,  not  because  it  gave  pain  to  the 
bear,  but  because  it  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectators. 

—  MACAULAY:  Milton. 

The  force  of  the  balanced  construction  comes  partly  from 
the  expression  of  the  thought  in  definitely  denned  units,  and 
partly  from  the  rhythm  that  accompanies  the  repetition  of 
similar  and  equivalent  units. 

5.  RHETORICAL  INTERROGATION  AND  EXCLAMATION 

Authors  sometimes  throw  sentences  into  exclamatory  or 
interrogative  form  simply  for  gain  in  force,  the  declarative 
form  being  without  emotional  effect. 

What  a  piece  of  work  is  man!  how  noble  in  reason!  how  infinite  in 
faculties!  in  form  how  moving!  in  action  how  like  an  angel!  in  appre 
hension  how  like  a  god!  the  beauty  of  the  world!  the  paragon  of  animals! 

—  SHAKESPEARE:  Hamlet. 

Hath  not  a  Jew  eyes,  hath  not  a  Jew  hands,  organs,  dimensions, 
senses,  affections,  passions?  fed  with  the  same  food,  hurt  with  the  same 
weapons,  subject  to  the  same  diseases,  healed  by  the  same  means, 
warmed  and  cooled  by  the  same  summer  and  winter  as  a  Christian? 
If  you  prick  us,  do  we  not  bleed?  If  you  tickle  us,  do  we  not  laugh? 
If  you  poison  us,  do  we  not  die?  And  if  you  wrong  us,  shall  we  not 
revenge? 

—  SHAKESPEARE:  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  III,  1. 

Shylock's  thought  is  perfectly  clear;  he  expects  no  answer 
to  his  questions,  for  there  could  be  only  one.  Change  the 
two  quotations  from  Shakespeare  into  declarative  form,  and 
see  how  much  they  lose  in  force. 


THE  SENTENCE  45 

AN  EXERCISE  ON  SENTENCES 

Discuss  the  form  of  the  following  sentences,  and  the  rhetorical 
value  of  the  form  chosen. 

1.  If  the  flights  of  Dry  den  therefore  are  higher,  Pope  continues  longer 
on  the  wing.    If  of  Dryden's  fire  the  blaze  is  higher,  of  Pope's  the  heat 
is  more  regular  and  constant.     Dryden  often  surpasses  expectation, 
and  Pope  never  falls  below  it.    Dryden  is  read  with  frequent  astonish 
ment,  and  Pope  with  perpetual  delight. 

—  DR.  JOHNSON:  Lives  of  the  Poets  (Pope). 

2.  Upon  me,  as  upon  others,  scattered  thinly  by  tens  and  twenties 
over  every  thousand  years,  fell  too  powerfully  and  too  early  the  vision 
of  life.  —  DE  QUINCEY:  Suspiria  de  Profundis. 

3.  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  Heavenly  Muse,  that  on  the  secret  top 
Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  didst  inspire 
That  shepherd,  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed, 
In  the  beginning  how  the  heaven  and  earth 
Rose  out  of  chaos:  or,  if  Sion  hill 
Delight  thee  more,  and  Siloa's  brook  that  flowed 
Fast  by  the  oracle  of  God,  I  thence 
Invoke  thy  aid  to  my  adventurous  song, 
That  with  no  middle  flight  intends  to  soar 
Above  the  Aonian  mount,  while  it  pursues 
Things  unattempted  yet  in  prose  or  rime. 

T  —  MILTON:  Paradise  Lost,  I,  1-16. 

4.  The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied,  that  of  Pope  is  cau 
tious  and  uniform.  Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of  his  own  mind.  Pope 
constrains  his  mind  to  his  own  rules  of  composition.  Dryden  is  some 
times  vehement  and  rapid,  Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  level. 
Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field  rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified 


46  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation:  Pope's  is  a  velvet 
lawn,  shaven  by  the  scythe,  and  levelled  by  the  roller. 

—  DR.  JOHNSON. 

5.  If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as  well  as 
your  own;  if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honour,  and  how  many 
die  without  name  or  children;  how  little  beauty  we  see,  and  how  few 
friends  we  hear  of;  how  many  diseases  and  how  much  poverty  there 
is  in  the  world;  you  will  fall  down  upon  your  knees,  and,  instead  of 
repining  at  your  affliction,  will  admire  so  many  blessings  which  you 
have  received  at  the  hand  of  God. 

—  SIR  WILLIAM  TEMPLE. 

6.  On  whatever  side  we  contemplate  Homer,  what  principally  strikes 
us  is  his  invention. 

7.  Sitting  last  winter  among  my  books,  and  walled  around  with  all 
the  comfort  and  protection  which  they  and  my  fireside  could  afford  me, 
to  wit,  a  table  of  high-piled  books  at  my  back,  my  writing  desk  on  one 
side  of  me,  some  shelves  on  the  other,  and  the  feeling  of  the  warm  fire 
at  my  feet,  I  began  to  consider  how  I  loved  the  authors  of  these  books. 

—  LEIGH  HUNT. 


CHAPTER  V 
DICTION 

1.  THE  VOCABULAKY 

Words  are  the  material  with  which  an  author  works,  and 
no  author  can  write  well  who  has  a  poor  vocabulary.  There 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the  vocabulary  used  by 
various  authors;  but  every  good  writer  has  at  his  command 
the  words  demanded  by  his  subject  and  his  style. 

An  author's  vocabulary  is  often  an  index  to  his  character 
and  interests.  Every  man  accumulates  words  relating  to  the 
subjects  on  which  he  talks,  reads,  and  thinks  most.  "If 
we  should  count,  we  should  find  that  two  men  using  about 
the  same  number  of  words  upon  the  whole,  have  the  depths 
and  shallows  of  their  verbal  wealth  at  different  places" 
(Minto).  A  farmer  uses  fluently  the  language  of  the  farm, 
a  lawyer  that  of  the  court-room,  a  mechanic  that  of  the  shop ; 
and,  as  far  as  technical  terms  are  concerned,  they  speak 
different  tongues. 

Synonyms  are,  strictly,  words  that  convey  precisely  the 
same  meaning;  but  practically  no  two  words  in  a  language 
are  precisely  the  same  in  both  denotation  and  connotation. 
If  there  is  no  other  difference,  one  is  learned  and  the  other  is 
popular.  De  Quincey  says:  "All  languages  tend  to  clear 
themselves  of  synonyms  as  intellectual  culture  advances, 
the  superfluous  words  being  taken  up  and  appropriated  by 
new  shades  and  combinations  of  thought  evolved  in  the 

47 


48  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

progress  of  society."  The  word  synonym  is  loosely  used 
to  designate  words  with  the  same  general  significance,  fine 
distinctions  in  meaning  and  usage  being  ignored.  But  the 
best  writers  choose  carefully  among  the  words  loosely  listed 
as  synonyms,  knowing  that  each  has  its  individual  shade 
of  meaning  or  its  peculiar  association,  and  that  accurate 
selection  is  therefore  necessary. 

We  need  not  estimate  for  most  authors,  as  has  been  done 
for  Shakespeare  and  Milton,  the  exact  size  of  the  vocabulary, 
but  we  may  observe  by  careful  reading  whether  a  writer  is 
able  to  express  his  thought  without  monotonous  repetition 
of  words  —  whether  he  seems  to  have  at  his  command  all 
the  words  he  needs,  and  whether  he  makes  fine  distinc 
tions  in  the  use  of  them.  If  he  is  satisfactory  in  these  re 
spects,  we  may  say  that  he  has  a  copious  vocabulary,  and 
is  precise  in  his  diction. 

2.  GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC  TERMS 

General  terms  name  classes;  Specific  terms  name  individ 
uals  under  classes.  The  following  sentences  are  sometimes 
given  in  rhetorics  as  containing  examples  of  general  (1)  and 
specific  (2)  terms. 

1.  Consider  the  flowers.    No  king  was  ever  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 

2.  Consider  the  lilies,  how  they  grow.  ...     I  say  unto  you  that 
Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 

The  following  paragraph  from  C.  D.  Warner's  My  Sum 
mer  in  a  Garden  contains  other  examples.  Find  them. 

I  left  my  garden  for  a  week,  just  at  the  close  of  a  dry  spell.  A 
season  of  rain  immediately  set  in,  and  when  I  returned  the  transforma 
tion  was  wonderful.  In  one  week  every  vegetable  had  fairly  jumped 


DICTION  49 

forward.  The  tomatoes,  which  I  had  left  slender  plants,  eaten  of  bugs 
and  debating  whether  they  would  go  backward  or  forward,  had  become 
stout  and  lusty,  with  thick  stems  and  dark  leaves,  and  some  of  them 
had  blossomed.  The  corn  waved  like  that  which  grows  so  rank  out  of 
the  French-English  mixture  at  Waterloo.  The  squashes  —  I  will  not 
speak  of  the  squashes.  The  most  remarkable  growth  was  the  asparagus. 
There  was  not  a  spear  above  the  ground  when  I  went  away;  and  now 
it  had  sprung  up  and  gone  to  seed,  and  there  were  stalks  higher  than 
my  head.* 

Why  do  the  specific  terms  impress  the  mind  so  much  more 
strongly  than  the  general  terms  in  these  sentences?  Because 
the  specific  terms  bring  to  the  mind  definite  pictures,  and 
the  general  terms  do  not.  The  word  lily  calls  up  the  image 
of  a  beautiful  blossom,  whiter  and  purer  than  any  shining, 
royal  robe.  The  name  Solomon  calls  to  mind  the  splendor  of 
a  rich  Oriental  monarch,  beside  whom  George  V  and  Alphonso 
XIII  are  quite  like  plain,  ordinary  mortals.  A  writer  will 
do  well,  then,  to  use  specific  terms  when  he  wishes  to  produce 
images  in  the  minds  of  his  readers.  In  descriptive  and 
narrative  writing,  specific  words  are  particularly  useful. 
Bryant  appeals  to  the  imagination  (suggests  pictures  to  the 
reader)  chiefly  by  means  of  specific  nouns  modified  by 
epithets.  Any  of  his  poems  describing  Nature  will  furnish 
excellent  examples  of  the  power  of  specific  terms  in  descrip 
tion. 

Nouns  are  not  the  only  words  that  may  be  classed  as 
general  or  specific.  In  the  following  sentences  (quoted  from 
Wendell's  English  Composition)  the  verbs  are  progressively 
more  specific,  and  the  sentences  become  more  forcible  as  the 
manner  of  death  is  more  exactly  told. 

Major  Andre  died. 
Major  Andre  was  killed. 

*  Used  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


50  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Major  Andre  was  executed. 
Major  Andre  was  hanged* 

The  following  paragraph  shows  very  well  the  descriptive 
power  of  specific  verbs. 

Every  country  has  its  own  rivers,  and  every  river  has  its  own  quality; 
and  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  know  and  love  as  many  as  you  can, 
receiving  from  each  the  best  it  has  to  give.  The  torrents  of  Norway 
leap  down  from  their  mountain  homes  with  plentiful  cataracts,  and 
run  brief  but  glorious  races  to  the  sea.  The  streams  of  England  move 
smoothly  through  green  fields  and  beside  ancient,  sleepy  towns.  The 
Scotch  rivers  brawl  through  the  open  moorland  and  flash  along  steep 
Highland  glens.  The  rivers  of  the  Alps  are  born  in  icy  caves,  from 
which  they  issue  forth  with  furious,  turbid  waters;  but  when  their 
anger  has  been  forgotten  in  the  slumber  of  some  blue  lake,  they  flow 
down  more  softly  to  see  the  vineyards  of  France  and  Italy,  the  gray 
castles  of  Germany,  and  the  verdant  meadows  of  Holland.  The  mighty 
rivers  of  the  West  roll  their  yellow  floods  through  broad  valleys,  or 
plunge  down  dark  canyons.  The  rivers  of  the  South  creep  under  dim 
arboreal  archways  heavy  with  banners  of  waving  moss.* 

—  VAN  DYKE  :  Little  Rivers. 

But  general  terms,  too,  have  their  use.  They  are  better 
than  specific  terms  —  better  because  broader  —  in  making 
summaries  and  general  statements  regarding  classes.  They 
are  better  when  the  writer  desires,  not  to  call  up  an  image  to 
the  imagination,  but  to  express  an  abstract  notion.  General 
terms  are,  therefore,  particularly  useful  in  some  sorts  of 
expository  writing. 

3.  LONG  AND  SHORT  WORDS 

There  is  no  virtue  in  words  because  of  their  length  or  their 
shortness.  That  word  is,  in  general,  best  which  is  familiar  to 

*  The  quotations  from  Wendell  and  Van  Dyke  are  used  by  kind  permission 
of  Messrs.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers  of  the  books  quoted. 


DICTION  51 

the  reader  and  best  expresses  the  author's  meaning.  Short 
words  are  more  apt  to  be  familiar  than  their  longer  synonyms, 
and  are  often  preferable  for  that  reason.  They  lend  an  air 
of  simplicity  to  the  style.  Long  words,  on  the  other  hand, 
give  dignity  to  the  style,  and  are  sometimes  to  be  preferred 
for  that  reason.  You  will  notice  the  long  words  in  Bryant's 
fine  blank-verse  poems.  And  you  have  observed  the  use  of 
some  long  words  in  Poe's  Bells  for  musical  and  metrical 
effect. 

It  is  usually  unnecessary  to  comment  on  the  length  of  an 
author's  words,  but  occasionally  one  shows  a  decided  pref 
erence  for  long  or  short  words,  apparently  merely  because 
of  their  length.  Bunyan,  in  his  Pilgrim's  Progress,  uses  a 
great  proportion  of  words  of  one  syllable;  perhaps  because 
he  was  an  unlettered  man.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  seems  to 
have  delighted  in  ponderous  words;  Goldsmith  said  of  him 
that,  if  he  were  to  write  a  fable  about  little  fishes,  he  would 
make  them  all  talk  like  whales. 

Perhaps  "popular"  (or  "familiar")  and  "learned"  would  be  a 
better  classification  of  words  than  "short"  and  "long."  Roughly  the 
two  divisions  coincide,  though  there  are  exceptional  words. 

4.  DENOTATION  AND  CONNOTATION 

The  Denotation  of  a  word  is  its  actual  meaning  —  its 
dictionary  definition.  Its  Connotation  is  the  association  it 
suggests  to  us,  over  and  above  its  actual  meaning  and  defi 
nition.  Home  may  be  defined  as  "  one's  dwelling-place  or 
residence."  But  the  mere  definition  would  never  explain  the 
happy  anticipations  with  which  we  exclaim,  after  an  absence 
of  a  few  days,  "I  am  going  home  to-morrow!"  We  do  not 
think  merely  of  going  to  the  house  whose  roof  shelters 


52  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

us;  we  think  of  all  that  the  word  home  connotes  —  parents, 
brothers,  sisters,  affection,  happiness.  It  is  the  connotation 
of  the  word  —  associations  that  no  dictionary  can  enu 
merate  —  that  makes  us  love  it. 

The  connotation  of  a  word  may,  in  time,  become  so  prominent 
that  it  actually  becomes  its  commonest  meaning,  and  is  turned 
into  a  real  definition.  Angel  at  first  meant  "a  messenger."  The 
word  was  often  used  in  speaking  of  a  messenger  of  God.  A  messen 
ger  of  God  would  naturally  be  a  pure,  holy,  radiant,  beautiful  being. 
It  is  this  derived  meaning  —  this  suggestion  or  connotation  —  that 
we  have  most  often  in  mind  now  when  we  use  the  word  angel,  as  in 
saying  of  some  one  whom  we  greatly  admire,  "She  is  a  perfect 
angel!"  And  this  connotation  has  finally  become  the  meaning  of 
the  word,  i.  e.,  the  word  has  come  to  denote  what  it  once  only  con 
noted.  (See  the  Century  Dictionary,  under  angel.} 

Since  connotation  depends  on  the  association  suggested,  a 
word  may  connote  different  things  to  different  persons. 
Home  to  most  of  us  connotes  love  and  happiness.  But  we 
have  all  read  of  unfortunate  children  that  have  grown  up  in 
the  " slums"  of  our  great  cities,  in  the  midst  of  vice  and 
wretchedness,  without  the  love  of  parents  and  family.  For 
them  there  is  no  such  pleasant  connotation  in  the  word  home. 
There  may  be  a  connotation  of  an  opposite  kind,  if  home  is 
the  place  where  they  receive  the  least  kindness  and  the  most 
ill-treatment.  But  for  every  person  that  uses  the  English 
language,  home  has  the  same  denotation —  "  one's  dwelling- 
place,  or  residence." 

It  is  as  important  for  an  author  to  consider  the  connotation 
of  his  words  as  to  consider  the  denotation.  If  a  word  has 
pleasant  associations,  he  ennobles  the  person  or  thing  that 
he  applies  it  to;  if  it  has  unpleasant  associations,  he  degrades 
the  person  or  thing  that  he  applies  it  to.  It  is  as  bad  to  call  a 


DICTION  53 

man  a  Benedict  Arnold  or  a  Uriah  Heep  as  to  call  him  a 
traitor,  or  a  hypocritical  liar  and  thief.  The  word  hang  has 
such  evil  associations  that  the  sentence  "Major  Andre  was 
hanged"  is  an  arraignment  of  the  unfortunate  man's  char 
acter  until  the  circumstances  of  the  execution  are  explained. 

5.  POETIC  DICTION 

Since  poetry  (more  than  any  other  sort  of  literature)  is  ad 
dressed  to  the  imagination  and  the  emotions,  it  requires 
certain  peculiarities  of  diction  to  help  it  fulfil  its  special 
office.  It  requires,  also,  some  indulgence  because  it  must 
be  constructed  with  regard  to  metrical  laws  and  rime  — 
limitations  to  which  even  the  most  literary  prose  is  not  sub 
ject.  Literary  prose,  however,  as  it  approaches  the  feeling 
and  the  exaltation  of  poetry,  may  also  use  to  some  extent  the 
poetic  style  of  diction.  Some  of  the  peculiarities  of  poetic 
diction  are  given  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

1.  When  we  express  intense  feeling  or  excitement  we  usu 
ally  abridge  the  grammatical  structure  of  our  sentences.  An 
exclamatory  sentence  is  often  elliptical.  In  poetry  words 
are  sometimes  omitted  under  the  emotional  stress,  and 
sometimes  for  the  sake  of  the  meter.  In  descriptive  poetry 
it  is  often  wise  to  omit  copula,  connectives,  and  other  com 
paratively  insignificant  words  readily  understood,  that 
stress  may  be  laid  on  the  words  rhetorically  more  effective. 
In  the  descriptive  lines  of  the  following  stanzas  by  Philip 
Bourke  Marston,  Thy  Garden,  only  the  picturing  words  are 
present;  verbs  are  conspicuously  absent. 

Pure  moonlight  in  thy  garden,  sweet,  tonight  — 
Pure  moonlight  in  thy  garden,  and  the  breath 

Of  fragrant  roses!    Oh  my  heart's  delight, 

Wed  thou  with  Love,  but  I  will  wed  with  Death. 


54  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Dawn  in  thy  garden,  with  the  faintest  sound,  — 

Uncertain,  tremulous,  awaking  birds! 
Dawn  in  thy  garden,  and  from  meadows  round, 

The  sudden  lowing  of  expectant  herds. 

Wind  in  thy  garden  tonight,  my  love, 

Wind  in  thy  garden  and  rain; 
A  sound  of  storm  in  the  shaken  grove, 

And  cries  as  of  spirits  in  pain! 

Snow  in  thy  garden, falling  thick  and  fast, 
Snow  in  thy  garden, where  the  grass  shall  be! 

What  dreams  tonight?    Thy  dreaming  nights  are  past, 
Thou  hast  no  glad  or  grievous  memory. 

Night  in  thy  garden,  white  with  snow  and  sleet, 
Night  rushing  on  with  wind  and  storm  toward  day! 

Alas,  thy  garden  holdeth  nothing  sweet, 
Nor  sweet  can  come  again,  and  thou  away. 

Connectives  of  all  sorts  are  freely  omitted,  for  economy  of 
expression  and  to  make  the  meter.  In  this  example  the 
relative  pronoun  is  not  expressed: 

And  you  may  gather  garlands  there 
Would  grace  a  summer  queen. 

The  preposition  is  omitted  before  whom  in, 

Grant  me  still  a  friend  in  my  retreat, 
Whom  I  may  whisper,  "Solitude  is  sweet." 

The  main  subject  is  omitted  for  the  sake  of  meter  in  the 
opening  sentence  of  Burns's  famous  poem: 

Is  there  for  honest  poverty 
That  hangs  his  head  and  a'  that? 

That  is,  "Is  there  anyone  who  hangs  his  head  in  shame  be 
cause  of  honest  poverty?" 

2.  Words  in  forms  shortened  by  the  omission  of  a  syllable 
are  sometimes  used  by  the  poet  for  the  sake  of  meter:  oft, 


DICTION  55 

o'er,  marge,  list,  mount,  e'er,  ne'er,  'neath,  'twixt.  Here  may 
be  mentioned  also  such  poetic  contractions  as  'twere,  'twas, 
'tis. 

3.  A  poet  sometimes  uses  a  genitive  where  a  prose  writer 
would  use  an  o/-phrase.    This  briefer  expression  and  change 
in  the  order  and  relation  of  accents  helps  the  poet  make  his 
meter. 

And  the  barn's  brown  length. 

The  sundown's  blaze  on  the  window-pane. 

—  WHITTIER:  Telling  the  Bees. 

Beside  the  snowbank's  edges  cold. 

—  BRYANT:  The  Yellow  Violet. 

4.  Poetic  Compounds  are  sometimes  coined,  for  economy 
of  expression,  and  to  suit  the  meter. 

The  cleft-born  wildflower. 

—  BRYANT:  Inscription  for  the  Entrance  to  a  Wood. 

The  grief-shadowed  present. 

—  BRYANT:  The  Flood  of  Years. 

The  hills,  rock-ribbed  and  ancient. 
The  all-beholding  sun. 

—  BRYANT:  Thanatopsis. 

The  earth-o'erlooking  mountains. 

—  BRYANT:  Monument  Mountains. 

5.  Archaic  words  are  retained  for  poetic  use  when  quite 
obsolete  in  prose.    They  stimulate  the  imagination  by  taking 
the  reader  out  of  the  commonplace  atmosphere  of  every-day 
life.    Here  belong,  among  other  obsolescent  words,  the  old 
forms  of  the  pronouns   (ihou,  thy,  thee,  ye),  and  the  -est 
and  -eth  forms  of  the  verb. 


56  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

He  giveth  his  beloved  sleep. 

—  MRS.  BROWNING. 

There  was  a  dwelling  of  kings,  ere  the  world  was  waxen  old. 

—  WM.  MORRIS. 

6.  Words  are  changed  from  one  part  of  speech  to  another. 
In  "the  great  deep"  a  descriptive  adjective  is  used  for  the 
noun  ocean,  which  it  describes.    In  "bleeding  drops  of  red," 
the  adjective  is  used  for  the  noun  blood,  the  quality  is  named 
for  the  object. 

7.  Epithets  are  of  great  value  in  both  poetry  and  literary 
prose.     They  are  descriptive  adjectives,  but  they  are  not 
mere  descriptive  adjectives.     The  mere  adjectives  help  the 
reader  form  a  correct  image  of  the  object  described:  white 
(horse),  tall  (man),  pretty  (girl).     The  epithet  emphasizes 
some  quality  or  characteristic  of  the  object  that  the  poet 
wishes  the  reader  at  the  moment  to  have  in  mind.     It  is 
used  more  for  its  suggestive  effect  than  for  the  actual  in 
formation  it  conveys.    Such  is  the  purpose  of  Bryant  in  the 
use  of  the  Decorative  Epithets  in  his  Forest  Hymn  and  Than- 
atopsis:  winding  (aisles),  clear  (spring),  dim  (vaults),  woody 
(wilderness),    darkling    (forest),    insensible    (rock),    sluggish 
(clod). 

Essential  Epithets  name  some  quality  that  of  necessity 
belongs  to  the  object.  They  seem  almost  tautological;  they 
are  so  in  meaning,  but  they  serve  some  rhetorical  purpose  in 
their  context:  wet  (waves),  white  (milk). 

Conventional  Epithets  are  used  as  a  matter  of  custom,  the 
adjective  being  a  usual  attendant  on  the  noun  whenever 
the  latter  occurs.  The  Greeks  regularly  spoke  of  Aurora 
as  "Rosy-fingered  Dawn,  daughter  of  the  Morning."  The 
English  ballads  sing  always  of  merry  men,  fair  ladies,  bonny 


DICTION  57 

brides,  and  good  steeds.  Perhaps  the  expressions  "nut-brown 
ale"  and  "sturdy  oak"  have  become  conventional  in  our 
poetry. 

Phrasal  Epithets  are  whole  phrases,  or  even  clauses,  in  a 
nut-shell,  and  by  virtue  of" their  economy  in  expression  are 
useful  in  making  the  meter,  as  well  as  for  their  condensed 
descriptive  force.  See  Keats's  "viewless  wings  of  poetry," 
i.  e.,  those  that  cannot  be  viewed,  or  seen.  Many  poetic- 
compounds  are  used  as  phrasal  epithets:  (the)  all-beholding 
(sun);  (the)  century-living  (crow);  (the)  earth-o'erlooking 
(mountains) . 

Epithets  may  help  to  produce  unity  in  the  atmosphere  of 
a  poem.  Read  Bryant's  Forest  Hymn,  and  observe  how 
by  the  use  of  decorative  epithets  he  keeps  constantly  be 
fore  us  his  conception  of  and  feeling  for  the  forest. 

EXERCISES  ON  DICTION 

1.  Find  the  definitions  of  the  following  words;  then  explain  what 
connotation  they  have  for  you:  giant,  fairy,  gnome,  brownie,  patriot, 
traitor,  patriarch,  mother,  Republican,  Democrat,  Yankee,  Englishman, 
foreigner. 

2.  Find  and  classify  the  epithets  in  the  following  poems:  — 
Bryant  —  The  Prairies. 

Lowell  —  To  the  Dandelion. 

3.  Study  specific  words  and  epithets  in:  — 
Bryant  —  Green  River. 

Bryant  —  June. 

Bryant  —  The  Evening  Wind. 

Emerson  —  The  Humble-Bee. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

1.  LITERAL  AND  FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  difference  between  literal 
and  figurative  expression. 

"The  soldier  is  strong  and  brave."  This  sentence  means 
exactly  what  it  says.  It  is  perfectly  matter-of-fact,  i.  e.,  it 
is  a  literal  statement. 

"The  soldier  is  a  perfect  lion  in  battle."  Of  course  this 
does  not  mean  that  the  soldier  is  exactly  a  lion,  with  four 
feet  and  a  shaggy  mane;  but  he  has  the  unusual  courage  and 
strength  that  we  associate  in  our  thought  with  the  king  of 
beasts.  Such  less  direct  manner  of  expression  is  figurative; 
it  contains  a  Figure  of  Speech. 

Literature  is  full  of  figures;  for  the  well-chosen  figure, 
through  its  power  of  suggestion,  stimulates  the  reader's 
imagination  and  adds  greatly  to  the  force  of  expression. 

In  our  daily  language,  also,  we  use  many  figures. 

There  are  fifty  sails  (ships  having  sails)  on  the  bay. 
A  red-coat  (a  man  wearing  one)  rode  up. 

The  boy  broke  loose  from  authority  (as  a  colt  breaks  away  from  his 
post). 

I  was  tied  up  at  home  (as  a  horse  is  tied  to  a  post). 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  some  of  our  prosiest,  most 
matter-of-fact  words  originated  in  figures.  Language  has 
been  called  "a  bunch  of  faded  metaphors." 

58 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  59 

That  we  may  better  understand  how  to  interpret  the 
figures  of  speech,  we  shall  divide  them  into  a  number  of 
classes.  Most  of  these  classes  are  called  by  Greek  names, 
for  the  Greek  rhetoricians  were  the  founders  of  our  study  of 
figures.  The  names  may  seem  a  little  difficult,  but  it  is 
always  convenient  to  have  names  for  things  we  must  talk 
about,  and  we  are  obliged  to  use  the  nomenclature  we  find 
in  the  language.  The  important  thing,  however,  is  not  to 
know  the  names  merely,  but  to  learn  to  interpret  the  figures 
so  that  we  shall  grasp  their  meaning  and  feel  their  strength. 

2.  FIGURES  OF  COMPARISON 

1.  While  from  my  path  the  hare 
Fled  like  a  shadow. 

—  LONGFELLOW:  The  Skeleton  in  Armor. 

2.  She  speaks  poniards,  and  every  word  stabs. 

—  SHAKESPEARE  :  King  Lear. 

3.  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul 
after  thee,  O  Lord. 

—  The  Psalms. 

4.  Like  a  beauteous  barge  was  she, 
Just  beyond  the  billow's  reach. 
But  he 

Was  the  restless,  seething,  stormy  sea. 

—  LONGFELLOW:  The  Building  of  the  Ship. 

5.  Long  ago, 

In  the  deer-haunted  forests  of  Maine, 

When  upon  mountain  and  plain 

Lay  the  snow, 

They  fell,  —  those  lordly  pines! 

Those  grand,  majestic  pines! 

'  Mid  shouts  and  cheers 

The  jaded  steers, 

Panting  beneath  the  goad, 


60  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Dragged  down  the  weary,  winding  road 

Those  captive  kings  so  straight  and  tall, 

To  be  shorn  of  their  streaming  hair, 

And,  naked  and  bare, 

To  feel  the  stress  and  the  strain 

Of  the  wind  and  the  reeling  main, 

Whose  roar 

Would  remind  them  forever  more 

Of  their  native  forests  they  should  not  see  again. 

—  LONGFELLOW:  The  Building  of  the  Ship. 

Let  us  study  the  comparisons  in  these  quotations.  We 
notice  about  them,  first,  that  they  are  not  literal.  In  reality 
a  hare  is  not  like  a  shadow  (1),  nor  a  maiden  like  a  barge  (4). 
In  each  comparison  the  things  compared  seem,  at  first  glance, 
strangely  coupled,  because  they  belong  to  quite  different 
classes.  But,  on  further  study,  they  reveal,  in  spite  of  their 
differences,  some  point  of  likeness,  which  brings  them  to 
gether.  The  shadow  cast  by  a  cloud  is  like  a  hare  in  the 
silence  and  swiftness  of  its  movement.  The  beautiful  young 
woman,  on  the  eve  of  her  wedding-day,  was  about  to  begin 
a  new  life,  just  as  the  graceful,  newly-built  ship  on  the  shore 
was  waiting  to  begin  its  career  on  the  sea. 

These  are  all  figurative  comparisons.  They  are  to  be 
interpreted  not  simply  by  our  matter-of-fact  reason,  but  by 
our  imagination.  And  our  interpretation  of  them  depends 
on  our  clear  recognition  of  the  point  of  likeness  in  the  two 
things  compared.  Until  we  have  had  considerable  experience 
in  the  study  of  literature,  it  is  well  for  us  to  state  accurately 
the  meaning  of  the  figurative  comparison,  that  we  may  not 
fall  into  the  bad  habit  of  reading  vaguely. 

Figures  of  comparison  that  contain  some  word  indicating 
comparison  (as,  like,  resemble,  etc.)  are  called  Similes.  We 
find  similes  in  the  quotations  numbered  1,  3,  4.  Explain  the 


INTERIOR  VIEWS  OF  HENRY  VII's  CHAPEL,  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  61 

simile  in  3  as  those  in  1  and  4  are  explained  above,  stating 
clearly  what  two  things  are  compared,  and  in  what  respect 
they  are  alike. 

We  shall  need  to  be  careful  in  order  not  to  confuse  the 
simile  and  the  literal  comparison. 

Tom,  like  his  brother  Jack,  is  tall. 

Here  we  speak  in  a  perfectly  literal  way  of  two  boys,  Tom  and 
Jack.  The  simile  is  a  comparison  of  things  belonging  to 
entirely  different  classes: 

That  soldier  was  like  a  lion. 

These  things  of  different  classes  are  brought  together  by  the 
imagination  because  of  a  certain  likeness. 

Some  of  the  quotations  above  contain  a  comparison  and 
yet  express  no  word  of  comparison  (like,  as,  etc.).  Number  2 
means :  She  speaks  words  that  hurt  the '  spirit  as  poniards 
hurt  the  body.  In  4  the  youth  is  compared  to  the  sea  be 
cause  he  is  full  of  energy  and  action.  In  5  the  pines  are 
called  " kings"  because  they  stood  in  the  forest  as  upright 
and  stately  as  a  royal  person  ("lordly,"  "majestic");  and 
their  fall  and  passage  to  the  river  reminds  the  poet  of  the 
humiliating  progress  of  vanquished  and  captive  kings  in 
the  triumphal  procession  of  a  Roman  emperor. 

These  comparisons  are  called  Metaphors.  They  differ 
from  the  simile  in  containing  no  word  of  comparison  (like, 
as).  An  object  of  one  class  is  called  by  a  name  literally 
belonging  to  an  object  of  another  class;  one  thing  is  spoken  of 
in  terms  used  literally  for  a  thing  quite  different,  the  two 
things  being  brought  together  in  the  imagination  of  the 
writer  by  some  point  of  resemblance. 


62  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

A  metaphor  sometimes  affects  the  diction  of  a  writer  for 
some  lines.  In  5  the  words  lordly,  majestic,  captive,  shorn, 
hair,  naked  are  brought  into  the  poem  because  of  the  refer 
ence  to  kings,  barbarian  chieftains  once  dignified  and  power 
ful,  now  insulted  and  led  in  triumph  behind  the  chariot  of 
the  conqueror. 

The  correct  interpretation  of  the  metaphor,  like  that  of 
the  simile,  depends  on  the  clear  recognition  of  the  point  of 
likeness  in  the  two  things  compared,  which,  in  the  metaphor 
as  well  as  in  the  simile,  must  belong  to  different  classes. 

The  metaphor  is  a  stronger  figure  than  the  simile,  because, 
being  without  the  word  of  likeness,  it  is  more  condensed, 
and  the  interpretation  of  it  requires  greater  concentration 
of  thought.  It  is  more  stimulating  to  the  imagination  than 
the  simile.  However,  even  in  the  strongest  passages,  when 
a  metaphor  would  not  be  perfectly  clear,  an  author  uses  a 
simile.  Sometimes  a  simile  begins  a  comparison  and  a 
metaphor  continues  it,  as  in  quotation  4;  the  maiden  is  com 
pared  in  simile  to  a  barge,  and  her  lover  in  metaphor  to  the 
sea.  The  latter  part  of  the  poem  continues  the  metaphor 
at  some  length,  and  also  presents  its  reverse,  comparing  the 
ship  to  the  maiden  and  the  sea  to  her  bridegroom. 

A  third  figure  of  comparison  is  found,  though  it  is  much 
less  common  than  simile  and  metaphor. 

And  first,  with  nicest  skill  and  art, 
Perfect  and  finished  in  every  part, 
A  little  model  the  Master  wrought, 
Which  should  be  to  the  larger  plan 
What  the  child  is  to  the  man, 
Its  counterpart  in  miniature. 

—  LONGFELLOW:  The  Building  of  the  Ship. 

Here  is  expressed  not  a  likeness  of  qualities,  as  in  simile  and 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  63 

metaphor,  but  a  likeness  of  relations.    We  have  an  Analogy, 
which  might  be  indicated  by  a  proportion  of  four  members: 

the  model:  the  ship::  the  child:  the  man. 
Another  example  is  found  in  these  lines  from  Longfellow's 
The  Day  is  Done. 

A  feeling  of  sadness  and  longing 
That  is  not  akin  to  pain, 
And  resembles  sorrow  only 
As  the  mist  resembles  rain. 

Here  the  proportion  is: 

this  feeling:  sorrow::  mist:  rain. 

There  is  still  a  fourth  figure  of  comparison.  Read  Bryant's 
poem  called  The  Yellow  Violet,  and  observe  carefully  the 
author's  attitude  toward  nature.  He  applies  to  the  violet 
terms  that  belong  to  human  qualities  and  actions:  modest, 
gentle,  humble,  smile.  He  speaks  of  spring  as  having  hands 
and  planting  the  violet,  as  if  spring  were  a  gardener.  The 
sun,  whose  warm  rays  brought  the  flower  into  existence,  is 
its  parent,  who  feeds  and  cares  for  it  and  demands  from  it 
obedience  ("bade").  The  taller,  gayer  flowers  are  haughty 
and  flaunting.  Of  all  these  objects  Bryant  speaks  in  terms 
belonging  literally  to  creatures  having  life,  intelligence,  and 
personality.  He  personifies  the  violet,  the  other  flowers,  the 
sun,  Spring;  that  is,  he  speaks  of  them  as  if  they  were  persons. 

Other  examples  of  Personification  are: 

The  mountains  and  the  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  singing, 
and  all  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands. 

—  Isaiah  55:1 2. 

Nature  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe. 

—  MILTON:  Paradise  Lost. 


64  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Charity  suffereth  long,  and  is  kind;  charity  envielh  not;  charity 
vaunteth  not  itself,  is  not  puffed  up;  doth  not  behave  itself  unseemly,  seeketh 
not  her  own,  is  not  easily  provoked,  thinketh  no  evil;  rejoiceth  not  in  iniq 
uity,  but  rejoiceth  in  the  truth;  beareth  all  things,  believeth  all  things, 
hopeth  all  things,  endureth  all  things. 

—  I  Corinthians  13:4-7. 

Personification  gives  inanimate  things  or  abstractions  the 
attributes  of  life  and  personality.  The  origin  of  the  figure 
in  the  feeling  of  the  writer  we  may  gather  from  a  few  lines 
of  Whittier's  Snow-Bound. 

We  minded  that  the  sharpest  ear 
The  buried  brooklet  could  not  hear, 
The  music  of  whose  liquid  lip 
Had  been  to  us  companionship, 
And,  in  our  lonely  life,  had  grown 
To  have  an  almost  human  tone. 

The  figure  evidently  grows  out  of  the  author's  sympathy 
with  and  love  for  nature  and  the  inanimate  world.  It  rouses 
in  the  reader  the  same  sympathy  and  love,  and  therefore 
strengthens  the  writing.  Moreover,  it  adds  to  the  "dignity 
of  the  passage,  by  raising  a  lower  order  of  creation  or  an 
abstraction  to  the  level  of  a  living,  thinking,  willing  being. 

Personification  is  a  sort  of  general  metaphor  —  a  com 
parison  of  some  lower  creature  to  a  human  being.  Many 
metaphors  and  similes  involve  personification,  because  they, 
too,  compare  a  lower  creature  to  a  human  being.  It  is  best 
to  call  the  figure  simile  or  metaphor  when  the  comparison 
is  specific  instead  of  general;  e.  g.  when  pines  are  compared  to 
kings,  and  are  not  simply  given  universal  human  attributes 
or  characteristics.  But  the  personification  involved  in  this 
metaphor  justifies  the  use  later  of  the  words  feel,  remind,  see. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  65 

3.  APOSTROPHE  AND  VISION 

A  figure  often  (not  always)  associated  with  personification 
is  Apostrophe.  This  is  the  figure  in  which  a  writer  or  speaker 
addresses  absent  persons  as  though  they  were  present,  or 
inanimate  things  as  though  they  could  hear  and  understand. 
The  address  is  figurative,  not  literal,  because  the  person  or 
thing  addressed  is  not  expected  to  hear;  the  writer  exercises 
the  imagination  in  making  the  address.  Bryant's  The  Yellow 
Violet  is  an  apostrophe  to  that  flower.  He  has  written,  also, 
an  apostrophe  To  the  Fringed  Gentian.  These  apostrophes 
involve  personification,  because  the  flowers  are  addressed  as 
if  they  were  human.  Others  are: 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll! 
A  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain. 

—  BYRON:  Childe  Harold. 
Go,  lovely  rose, 

Tell  her  that  wastes  her  time  and  me, 
That  now  she  knows 
When  I  resemble  her  to  thee 
How  sweet  and  fair  she  seems  to  be. 

—  WALLER. 

No  personification  is  involved  in  David's  lament  for 
Absalom : 

Would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son! 

A  figure  similar  to  apostrophe  is  Vision.  An  author  uses 
vision  when  he  declares  that  he  sees  objects  not  actually 
present  before  him.  He  employs  this  figure  to  bring  the  past 
or  the  absent  vividly  before  himself  and  his  readers  or 
hearers. 

Methinks  I  see  it  now  —  that  one  solitary,  adventurous  vessel, 
the  Mayflower  of  a  forlorn  hope,  freighted  with  the  prospects  of  a 


66  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

future  state,  and  bound  across  the  unknown  sea.  I  behold  it  pursuing 
with  a  thousand  misgivings  the  uncertain,  the  tedious  voyage.  I  see 
them  now,  scantily  supplied  with  provisions;  crowded  almost  to  suffoca 
tion  in  their  ill-stored  prison;  delayed  by  calms,  pursuing  a  circuitous 
route.  The  awful  voice  of  the  storm  howls  through  the  rigging;  the 
laboring  masts  seem  straining  from  their  base;  the  dismal  sound  of  the 
pump  is  heard;  the  ship  leaps,  as  it  were,  madly  from  billow  to  billow; 
the  ocean  breaks  and  settles  with  ingulfing  floods  over  the  floating  deck, 
and  beats  with  deadening,  shivering  weight  against  the  staggering  ves 
sel. 

—  EDWARD  EVERETT. 

See  also  Tennyson's  The  Miller's  Daughter. 

The  verbs  in  such  passages  are  used  in  the  present  tense  — 
"the  historical  present"  —  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the 
picture  vividly  before  the  imagination. 

Sometimes  a  writer  imagines  that  he  hears,  instead  of  sees, 
things  past  or  absent,  and  therefore  not  literally  audible. 

I  hear  even  now  the  infinite  fierce  chorus, 

The  cries  of  agony,  the  endless  groan, 
Which,  through  the  ages  that  have  gone  before  us, 

In  long  reverberations  reach  our  own. 

—  LONGFELLOW:  The  Arsenal  at  Springfield. 

4.  FIGURES  OF  ASSOCIATION 

When  the  figure  of  Synecdoche  is  used,  some  striking  part 
of  the  object  is  named  instead  of  the  object  itself;  or,  less 
often,  the  whole  is  named  for  a  part.  This  figure  occurs 
frequently  in  common  language:  a  thousand  head  of  cattle; 
a  hundred  sails,  eighteen  summers  old,  a  factory  employing 
thirty  hands.  These  expressions  refer,  of  course,  to  the  cattle 
themselves,  the  ships,  the  years,  the  workmen.  In  the  sen 
tence,  "All  the  world  was  pleased,"  the  whole  is  named  for 
a  part,  since  it  is  only  the  people  of  the  world  who  are  pleased. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  67 

Synecdoche  is  found  in  a  verb  when  a  specific  act  is  men 
tioned  instead  of  the  notion  of  living  in  general. 

All  that  tread 

The  globe  are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 
That  slumber  in  its  bosom. 

—  BRYANT. 

A  writer  (or  speaker)  uses  Metonymy  when  he  names,  in 
stead  of  the  object  he  has  in  mind,  something  closely  asso 
ciated  with  it  or  accompanying  it.  This  is  also  a  common 
figure  in  every-day  language. 

Gray  hairs  (old  age)  are  honorable. 

The  kettle  (the  water  in  the  kettle)  boils. 

They  sat  around  the  festive  board  (table  made  of  boards). 

She  sets  a  good  table  (the  things  on  the  table  are  good). 

He  assumed  the  scepter  (the  power  which  the  scepter  symbolizes). 

I  am  reading  Milton  (books  which  Milton  wrote). 

The  thing  named  is  so  closely  associated  in  our  mind  with 
the  thing  intended  that  the  mention  of  one  calls  up  the  other. 
Metonymy  names  the  cause  for  the  effect,  the  effect  for  the 
cause,  the  container  for  the  thing  contained,  the  sign  for  the 
thing  symbolized,  the  material  for  the  article  made  of  it,  the 
producer  for  the  thing  produced. 

5.  SOME  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  FIGURES 

The  primary  use  of  figures  of  speech  is  to  strengthen  ex 
pression  by  association.  The  figure  stimulates  the  imagina 
tion  of  the  reader,  and  enables  the  writer  to  say  more  vigor 
ously  and  effectively  what  he  wishes  to  say. 

"Figures  add  also  beauty  to  the  style.  It  is  artistic  to  make  expres 
sion  as  suggestive  as  possible,  and  the  image  called  up  by  the  figure  is 
often  beautiful  in  itself." 


68  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

We  ennoble  an  idea  when  we  connect  with  it  some  exalted 
image;  and  we  degrade  an  idea  when  we  connect  with  it  a 
lower  one. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  the  sources  of  an  author's 
figures.  They  reveal  the  breadth  of  his  interest  and  knowl 
edge.  He  may  take  them  from  nature,  from  human  life, 
from  science,  from  books.  The  things  he  is  most  interested 
in  are,  naturally,  most  readily  called  up  in  his  mind  to  be 
used  in  comparison.  The  number  of  figures  he  uses  will  show 
whether  his  mind  is  apt  in  comparing,  associating,  relating, 
or  whether  he  sees  objects  and  facts  absolutely,  for  and  in 
themselves  alone. 

PRACTICE   IN  FIGURES 

One  should  not  be  satisfied  with  the  mere  naming  of  figures.  One 
should  be  able  to  state  clearly  what  two  things  are  compared,  and 
what  the  point  of  likeness  is;  to  tell  for  what  whole  the  name  of  the 
part  stands,  etc. 

1.  I  just  squeezed  through  that  examination. 

2.  One  generation  blows  bubbles,  and  the  next  breaks  them. 

—  COWPER. 

3.  Poor  man!  I  know  he  would  not  be  a  wolf, 
But  that  he  sees  the  Romans  are  but  sheep : 
He  were  no  lion,  were  not  the  Romans  hinds. 

—  SHAKESPEARE  :  Julius  Ccesar. 

4.  A  sudden  little  river  cross'd  my  path, 
As  unexpected  as  a  serpent  comes. 

—  BROWNING. 

5.  Youth  is  a  garland  of  roses;  age  is  a  crown  of  thorns. 

—  TALMUD. 

6.  Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  day 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain-tops. 

—  SHAKESPEARE:  Romeo  and  Juliet,  III,  5,  9-10. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  69 

7.  In  that  calm,  Syrian  afternoon,  Memory,  a  pensive  Ruth,  went 
gleaning  the  silent  fields  of  childhood,  and  found  the  scattered  grain 
still  golden,  and  the  morning  sunlight  fresh  and  fair. 

—  G.  W.  CURTIS. 

8.  I  was  hammering  away  at  my  lessons  when  Jack  called. 

9.  Government  patronage  should  not  be  so  dispensed  as  to  train 
up  a  population  to  the  one  pursuit  of  boring  gimlet-holes  into  the 
treasury,  and  then  of  seeking  to  enlarge  them,  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
into  auger  holes. 

10.  Her  angel's  face, 

As  the  great  eye  of  heaven,  shined  bright, 
And  made  a  sunshine  in  the  shady  place. 

—  SPENSER. 

11.  My  May  of  life 

Is  fallen  into  the  sere,  the  yellow  leaf. 

—  SHAKESPEARE. 

12.  Friendship  is  not  a  plant  of  hasty  growth, 
Though  planted  in  esteem's  deep  fixed  soil; 
The  gradual  culture  of  kind  intercourse 
Must  bring  it  to  perfection. 

—  JOANNA  BAILLIE. 

13.  Shakespeare  himself  would  have  been  commonplace  had  he  been 
paddocked  in  a  thinly-shaven  vocabulary. 

—  LOWELL. 

14.  Wordsworth's  longer  poems  are  Egyptian  sand-wastes,  with  here 
and  there  an  oasis  of  exquisite  greenery,  a  grand  image,  Sphinx-like, 
half-buried  in  drifting  commonplaces,  or  the  solitary  Pompey's  Pillar 
of  some  towering  thought. 

—  LOWELL. 

15.  There  is  much  that  is  deciduous  in  books,  but  all  that  gives  them 
a  title  to  rank  as  literature  in  the  highest  sense  is  perennial. 

—  LOWELL. 

16.  The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord  and  blushed. 


70  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

17.  For  very  young  he  seemed,  tenderly  reared; 

Like  some  young  cypress,  tall,  and  dark,  and  straight. 

—  M.  ARNOLD. 

18.  Break,  break,  break, 

At  the  foot  of  thy  crags,  O  sea! 

—  TENNYSON. 

19.  Ships  that  pass  in  the  night,  and  speak  each  other  in  passing, 
Only  a  signal  shown,  and  a  distant  voice  in  the  darkness; 

So  on  the  ocean  of  life  we  pass  and  speak  one  another, 
Only  a  look  and  a  voice,  then  darkness  again  and  a  silence. 

—  LONGFELLOW. 

20.  Strike  for  your  altars  and  your  fires! 

21.  How  far  that  little  candle  throws  its  beams! 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world. 

—  SHAKESPEARE:  The  Merchant  of  Venice. 

22.  The  day  is  done;  and  slowly  from  the  scene 
The  stooping  sun  upgathers  his  spent  shafts, 
And  puts  them  back  into  his  golden  quiver. 

—  LONGFELLOW. 

23.  The  depth  saith,  It  is  not  in  me:  and  the  sea  saith,  It  is  not  with 
me. 

—  Job  28:14. 

24.  If  you  blow  your  neighbor's  fire,  don't  complain  when  the  sparks 
fly  in  your  face. 

25.  Faith  builds  a  bridge  across  the  gulf  of  Death. 

—  YOUNG. 

26.  Explain  the  figures  in  Longfellow's  Maidenhood. 

27.  Explain  the  figures  in  Tennyson's  Crossing  the  Bar. 


CHAPTER    VII 
VARIOUS  QUALITIES  OF  STYLE  AND  KINDS  OF  WRITING 

1.  WIT  AND  HUMOR 

Writings  that  amuse  us  and  make  us  smile  or  laugh  have 
Humor.  A  humorist  is  usually  a  kind-hearted  person,  who 
presents  the  ridiculous  or  incongruous  aspect  of  his  subject  in 
a  perfectly  genial  spirit. 

One  of  our  best  humorists  is  Washington  Irving,  and 
from  his  writings  we  may  illustrate  some  of  the  common 
ways  of  presenting  a  subject  humorously. 

An  author  may  present  a  trivial,  sordid,  or  commonplace 
subject  with  the  diction  and  in  the  manner  suited  to  a 
serious,  important  one  —  using  long  words  and  words  of 
serious  meaning,  dignified  periods,  and  noble  comparisons. 
He  then  writes  in  the  mock-heroic  style. 

In  speaking  of  Rip  Van  Winkle's  character,  Irving  says: 

Those  men  are  most  apt  to  be  obsequious  and  conciliating  abroad 
who  are  under  the  discipline  of  shrews  at  home.  Their  tempers,  doubt 
less,  are  rendered  pliant  and  malleable  in  the  fiery  furnace  of  domestic 
tribulation,  and  a  curtain  lecture  is  worth  all  the  sermons  in  the  world 
for  teaching  the  virtues  of  patience  and  long-suffering.  The  great  error 
in  Rip's  composition  was  an  insuperable  aversion  to  all  kinds  of  prof 
itable  labor. 

Again,  speaking  of  the  group  of  gossiping  idlers  in  the  little 
Dutch  village,  Irving  uses  such  expressions  as  these: 

It  would  have  been  worth  any  statesman's  money  to  have  heard 

71 


72  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  profound  discussions;  how  sagely  they  would  deliberate;  the  opinions 
of  this  junto  were  controlled  by  Nicholas  Vedder,  a  patriarch  of  the 
village;  that  august  personage,  Nicholas  Vedder. 

Of  Ichabod  Crane  Irving  writes: 

The  gallant  Ichabod  now  spent  at  least  an  extra  half-hour  at  his 
toilet.  .  .  .  That  he  might  make  his  appearance  before  his  mistress  in 
the  true  style  of  a  cavalier,  he  borrowed  a  horse,  —  and  thus  gallantly 
mounted  issued  forth  like  a  knight-errant  in  quest  of  adventures.  .  .  .  But 
it  is  meet  I  should,  in  true  spirit  of  romantic  story,  give  some  account  of 
the  looks  and  equipments  of  my  hero  and  his  steed. 

We  can  hardly  call  Irving  ironical  or  sarcastic  here;  he  is 
too  good-natured.  He  uses  this  grandiloquent  style  merely 
to  make  Ichabod  and  Rip  as  amusing  to  us  as  they  were  to 
him. 

We  sometimes  read  articles  that  are  unconsciously  humor 
ous  in  the  way  we  are  now  considering.  During  the  base 
ball  season  not  many  years  ago,  a  daily  paper  in  a  large  city 
printed  in  an  editorial  and  with  all  seriousness  the  following 
paragraph  about  a  favorite  pitcher : 

And  behind  them  stands  B-  D-,  the  man  who  is  to  base-ball  what 
Shakespeare  was  to  poetry,  what  Alexander  the  Great  was  to  conquest, 
what  Columbus  was  to  discovery,  what  Whistler  was  to  art  —  the 
master. 

Humor  often  rises  from  association  of  the  subject  with 
the  ridiculous  or  incongruous,  through  figures  of  speech  or 
through  the  connotation  of  words. 

The  cognomen  of  Crane  was  not  inapplicable  to  his  person.  He 
was  tall,  but  exceedingly  lank,  with  narrow  shoulders,  long  arms  and 
legs,  hands  that  dangled  a  mile  out  of  his  sleeves,  feet  that  might  have 
served  for  shovels,  and  his  whole  frame  most  loosely  hung  together. 
His  head  was  small,  and  flat  at  the  top,  with  huge  ears,  large,  green, 


VARIOUS  QUALITIES  OF  STYLE  73 

glassy  eyes,  and  a  long  snipe  nose,  so  that  it  looked  like  a  weather-cock 
perched  upon  his  spindle  neck,  to  tell  which  way  the  wind  blew.  To  see 
him  striding  along  the  profile  of  a  hill  on  a  windy  day,  with  his  clothes 
bagging  and  fluttering  about  him,  one  might  have  mistaken  him  for  the 
genius  of  famine  descending  upon  the  earth,  or  some  scare-crow  eloped 
from  a  corn-field.  .  .  .  He  rode  with  short  stirrups,  which  brought  his 
knees  nearly  up  to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle;  his  sharp  elbows  stuck 
out  like  grasshoppers';  he  carried  his  whip  perpendicularly  in  his  hand, 
like  a  sceptre,  and  as  the  horse  jogged  on,  the  motion  of  his  arms  was 
not  unlike  the  flapping  of  a  pair  of  wings. 

Humor  may  arise  from  the  relation  of  events  humorous  in 
themselves,  as  in  Irving's  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  and  in 
Mark  Twain's  Tramp  Abroad  and  Innocents  Abroad. 

Wit  is  keener,  more  cutting  than  humor.  "  Its  thrust  must, 
then,  be  quick  and  sharp."  Much  of  its  effect  comes  from 
putting  something  before  us  in  a  new  and  unexpected  light. 
Witticisms  are  produced  by  brilliant  minds,  keenly  analytic. 

A  witty  remark  often  makes  the  point  of  an  anecdote. 

A  king,  disturbed  by  the  importunities  of  an  officer,  exclaimed  im 
patiently,  "You  are  the  most  troublesome  officer  in  my  whole  army!" 
"  Your  majesty's  enemies  have  often  said  the  same  thing,"  retorted  the 
officer  quickly. 

A  judge  threatened  to  fine  a  lawyer  for  contempt  of  court.  "I 
have  not  been  guilty  of  any  such  offense,"  flashed  back  the  lawyer; 
"I  have  carefully  concealed  my  feelings." 

An  Epigram,  or  brief,  pointed  saying,  is  a  form  of  wit. 
It  often  contains  an  apparent  contradiction. 

Beauty  unadorned  is  adorned  the  most. 
She  is  conspicuous  for  her  absence. 
A  Pun  is  a  play  on  words. 


74  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

"Thy  mistress  leads  thee  a  dog's  life  of  it,"  said  Rip  Van  Winkle  to  his 
dog  Wolf. 

When  Shylock  was  sharpening  his  knife  on  his  shoe  to  cut 
the  pound  of  flesh  from  Antonio,  Gratiano  cried, 

Not  on  thy  sole,  but  on  thy  soul,  harsh  Jew, 
Thou  mak'st  thy  knife  keen. 

Romeo,  pierced  at  first  sight  of  Juliet  by  the  dart  of  Cupid, 
declared, 

I  am  too  sore  empierced  with  his  shaft 

To  soar  with  his  light  feathers;  and  so  bound 

I  cannot  bound  a  pitch  above  dull  woe. 

—  SHAKESPEARE  :  Romeo  and  Juliet,  I,  4,  18-20. 

The  pun  was  a  favorite  device  in  certain  styles  of  Eliz 
abethan  diction. 

2.  PATHOS 

Humor  moves  us  to  laughter.  Its  opposite  is  Pathos,  which 
moves  us  to  pity  and  tears.  The  death  of  the  gentle  Beth 
in  Miss  Alcott's  Little  Women  is  a  pathetic  incident. 

Both  humor  and  pathos  must  occur  in  literature  —  even 
at  times  in  the  same  book;  for  some  varieties  of  literature 
are  intended  to  picture  a  considerable  section  of  life,  and 
life  offers  every  person  both  amusement  and  sorrow. 

3.  HYPERBOLE 

Hyperbole  means  "exaggeration."  It  is  plainly  not  to  be 
taken  literally,  and  an  author  using  it  has,  therefore,  no 
intention  to  deceive.  He  uses  a  strong  statement  to  stim 
ulate  the  imagination  to  a  just  picture  of  the  thing  described. 
Irving,  doubtless,  uses  hyperbole  in  his  description  of  Ichabod 


VARIOUS  QUALITIES  OF  STYLE  75 

Crane  (see  above),  but  he  has  chosen  an  excellent  method 
to  make  us  imagine  the  exceeding  awkwardness  and  ungain- 
liness  of  his  "  hero."  " The  waves  smote  the  stars  of  heaven," 
says  Virgil,  describing  a  great  storm;  and  we  understand  that 
the  waves  ran  as  high  as  waves  could  mount. 

4.  IRONY,  SARCASM,  SATIRE 

Irony  is  ridicule  in  the  words  of  praise,  or  praise  in  terms 
of  ridicule  or  blame.  The  writer  (speaker)  means  the  exact 
opposite  of  what  he  says;  the  true  significance  is  clearly 
indicated  by  the  context,  the  tone  of  voice,  or  in  some  other 
unmistakable  way. 

No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  shall  die  with  you! 

—  Job  12:2. 

Some  boys  are  discussing  a  bright  classmate,  and  one  of  them  says, 
ironically,  "John  is  terribly  stupid,  he  is!" 

Sarcasm  is  bitter  irony,  sharp  and  cutting.  Perhaps  the 
quotation  above  from  Job  has  a  touch  of  sarcasm.  Mark 
Antony  thus  expresses  his  indignation  against  the  Roman 
conspirators :  — 

Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest 

(For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man, 

So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men) 

Come  I  to  speak  at  Caesar's  funeral. 

He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me: 

But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious; 

And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

—  SHAKESPEARE  :  Julius  Ccesar. 

A  Satire  is  a  piece  of  literature  intended  to  overwhelm 
a  person  or  a  cause  with  ridicule  and  sarcasm.  Satires  are 
not  usually  in  the  highest  class  of  literature,  because  they 
are  concerned  with  feelings  that  belong  to  a  certain  period  of 


76  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

social  or  political  history,  rather  than  with  those  of  universal 
and  permanent  interest;  and  when  the  period  or  the  move 
ment  in  connection  with  which  they  were  written  passes  by, 
its  literature  passes  with  it.  The  great  English  satires  were 
written  in  connection  with  the  personal  and  political  quarrels 
of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  are  not  of 
much  general  interest  today.  A  well-written  satire  is,  how 
ever,  of  great  influence  while  the  question  with  which  it  deals 
has  living  interest.  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers,  First  Series,  in 
tensified  in  New  England  opposition  to  the  Mexican  War. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ALLUSIONS  AND  HOW  TO  STUDY  THEM 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  mind  is  apt  to  compare  and 
associate  one  thing  with  another,  and  that  such  comparison 
and  association  often  produces  figures  of  speech.  But  all 
the  associations  of  the  mind  and  imagination  do  not  reveal 
themselves  in  figurative  language.  A  student  of  books  is 
likely  to  be  reminded  by  his  thoughts  of  observations  and 
expressions  he  has  read,  and  when  he  writes  he  frequently 
refers,  or  alludes,  to  these.  Facts  of  history,  biography, 
science  —  whatever  interests  a  man  —  are  suggested  to  him 
by  his  more  original  thought,  and  furnish  him  with  the  allu 
sions  that  enrich  his  writing.  We  can  learn  a  great  deal 
about  an  author's  mind  and  range  of  reading  by  observing 
the  sources  of  his  allusions. 

We  do  not  understand  what  we  read  unless  we  understand 
the  allusions  it  contains,  and  what  purpose  the  writer  had  in 
view  when  he  made  each  of  his  allusions.  Each  should  be 
studied  for  its  definite  relation  to  the  context,  as  each  simile 
and  metaphor  is  studied  for  its  definite  point  of  comparison. 
When  we  explain  an  allusion  we  should  not  give  an  ac 
count  as  long  as  an  encyclopedia  article  on  the  subject  re 
ferred  to,  but  we  should  state  clearly  and  concisely  the  one 
point  which  the  author  had  in  mind  when  he  made  the 
reference. 

Bryant  in  Thanatopsis  writes  these  lines: 

77 


78  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Take  the  wings 

Of  morning,  pierce  the  Barcan  wilderness, 
Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 
Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 
Save  his  own  dashings  —  yet  the  dead  are  there. 

We  wish  to  know  what  the  poet  means  by  alluding  to  the 
" Barcan  wilderness"  and  the  "Oregon."  If  we  discuss  all 
that  history  and  geography  might  teach  us  of  these  names, 
we  shall  wander  hopelessly  away  from  Bryant's  poem.  All 
we  need  to  dwell  on  is  that  one  is  far  east,  the  other  far  west, 
and  that  Bryant  selected  them  as  specific  examples  of  un 
inhabited  places.  The  thesis  of  his  poem  is  this:  The  earth 
is  only  the  great  and  magnificent  tomb  of  the  human  race. 
"O,  but,"  some  reader  might  object,  "that  can't  be  true; 
parts  of  it  are  not  even  inhabited."  "Yes,"  insists  the  poet, 
anticipating  the  thought  of  his  reader;  "even  the  desert  and 
the  pathless  forest  —  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  — 
are  full  of  graves." 

We  should  never  allow  our  study  of  allusions  to  spoil  the 
unity  of  our  poem  or  story.  We  must  grasp  the  point  of  the 
allusion,  and  ignore  for  the  time  all  the  rest  of  the  information 
we  may  have  gained  about  the  subject  referred  to. 

A  well-edited  text  will  explain  for  us,  in  its  notes,  many 
of  its  author's  allusions.  But  we  do  not  wish  always  to  be 
dependent  on  an  editor  or  another  person,  and  sometimes 
we  have  no  notes.  It  is  well,  therefore,  for  us  to  know  how 
to  consult  various  books  of  reference.  The  librarian  of  the 
school  or  of  the  public  library  can  best  tell  us  what  books  are 
accessible  for  reference.  A  good  dictionary,  an  encyclopedia, 
and  a  cyclopedia  of  proper  names  are  indispensable.  These 
books  will  usually  give  a  starting-point,  and  will  suggest 
what  more  special  works  may  be  used  in  tracing  out  any 


ALLUSIONS  AND  HOW  TO  STUDY   THEM        79 

allusion.  The  books  most  commonly  referred  to  are  usually 
well  worth  knowing  for  their  own  sake,  and,  once  mastered, 
give  no  further  difficulty.  Such  a  book  is  the  Arabian  Nights; 
everyone  should  know  so  well  at  least  the  story  of  Aladdin 
that  an  allusion  to  it  is  understood  as  quickly  as  it  is  read. 

The  two  chief  sources  of  allusions  in  English  literature 
are  classic  mythology  and  the  King  James  version  of  the 
Bible.  With  these  sources  every  student  should  become  as 
familiar  as  possible.  He  should  also  have  at  hand  a  good 
text  on  mythology  (like  Gayley's  or  Fairbanks'),  so  that  he 
may  look  up  at  any  time  an  unfamiliar  reference  he  may 
chance  upon.  Although  a  school-book  is  not  the  place  to 
recommend  the  Bible  as  a  book  of  religion,  it  is  entirely 
within  the  province  of  a  book  on  literature  to  call  attention 
to  its  literary  importance.  Since  the  national  book  of  religion 
will  naturally  be  widely  read,  it  is  most  fortunate  for  us  that 
the  Biblical  translation  accepted  as  the  standard  for  three 
hundred  years  was  made  in  the  simplest,  purest,  most 
dignified  of  English.  The  charm  of  its  style  did  not  escape 
persons  of  literary  taste  and  feeling,  and  its  influence  is  felt 
in  the  phraseology  and  manner  of  our  best  writers.  Its 
characters,  too,  and  its  stories  are  so  frequently  alluded  to 
that  one  cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  them;  and  one  should 
know  how  to  use  Biblical  concordances  and  indexes  as  well 
as  he  uses  other  reference  books. 

For  references  to  saints  and  to  the  legends  of  the  early 
Christian  church  Mrs.  Jameson's  books  are  very  useful: 
Legends  of  the  Madonna,  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders, 
Sacred  and  Legendary  Art  (2  vol.). 

Quotations  are  often  more  difficult  to  trace  than  simple 
allusions.  There  are  books  (e.  g.  Bartlett's  Familiar  Quota 
tions}  that  place  for  us  many  of  the  common  ones,  and  a 


80  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

writer  sometimes  names  or  indicates  by  the  context  what 
book  he  is  quoting.  Phrases  that  are  not  exact  quotations 
but  echoes  of  the  phraseology  of  another  must  be  recognized 
by  general  knowledge  and  experience  in  reading.  There  are 
no  direct  quotations  from  Milton  in  Collins's  Ode  to  livening, 
but  one  familiar  with  L' Allegro  and  II  Penseroso  feels  in 
every  line  of  the  Ode  the  influence  of  the  great  master. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THOUGHT  AND  STYLE 

We  have  been  studying  the  principles  that  underlie  literary 
expression,  and  we  may  have  felt  sometimes  that  we  have 
been  studying  the  body  of  literature  instead  of  its  soul.  Why 
pay  such  careful  attention  to  style?  Because  the  style  is  as 
much  a  part  of  the  poem  or  the  story  as  the  thought  is,  just 
as  a  man's  physical  traits  and  habits  are  as  much  a  part  of 
his  personality  as  his  mental  characteristics  are.  Indeed, 
style  and  thought  are  as  intimately  connected  as  body  and 
soul. 

Style  is  good  when  it  is  suitable  to  the  thought  it  expresses; 
it  is  poor  when  it  is  unsuitable.  We  are  not  to  imagine  that 
a  great  writer  says  to  himself,  "I  will  put  a  simile  here  and  a 
metaphor  there."  He  works  rather  by  instinct,  his  unerring 
good  taste  —  which  is  so  important  an  element  of  his  ge 
nius  —  guiding  him  to  the  most  appropriate  expression  of 
his  thought.  Because  of  this  close  connection  between  the 
thought  and  its  expression,  we  cannot  learn  to  appreciate 
literature  properly  without  cultivating  a  feeling  for  style. 

The  superior  character  of  truth  and  seriousness,  in  the  matter  and 
substance  of  the  best  poetry,  is  inseparable  from  the  superiority  of  dic 
tion  and  movement  marking  its  style  and  manner.  The  two  superiori 
ties  are  closely  related,  and  are  in  stedfast  proportion  one  to  the  other. 

—  M.  ARNOLD:  The  Study  of  Poetry. 

And  yet  we  should  miss  the  most  abiding  and  profitable 

81 


82  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

part  of  literary  study  if  we  should  content  ourselves  with 
the  study  of  style  alone,  without  reference  to  the  thought. 
Such  a  study  could  be  nothing  more  than  a  mere  mechanical 
listing  of  figures,  words,  sentences,  and  metrical  devices  — 
a  study  not  in  the  least  worth  while.  Style  is  a  means  to  an 
end,  and  should  be  studied  as  such.  It  exists  for  the  expres 
sion  of  thought. 

Epictetus  had  a  happy  figure  for  things  like  the  play  of  the  senses, 
or  literary  form  and  finish,  or  argumentative  ingenuity,  in  comparison 
with  'the  best  and  master  thing'  for  us,  as  he  called  it,  the  concern,  how 
to  live.  Some  people  were  afraid  of  them,  he  said,  or  they  disliked  or 
undervalued  them.  Such  people  were  wrong;  they  were  unthankful  or 
cowardly.  But  the  things  might  also  be  overprized,  and  treated  as  final, 
when  they  are  not.  They  bear  to  life  the  relation  which  inns  bear  to 
home.  'As  if  a  man,  journeying  home,  and  finding  a  nice  inn  on  the 
road,  and  liking  it,  were  to  stay  forever  at  the  inn!  Man,  thou  hast 
forgotten  thine  object;  thy  journey  was  not  to  this  but  through  this. 
"But  this  inn  is  taking."  And  how  many  other  inns,  too,  are  taking, 
and  how  many  fields  and  meadows!  but  as  places  of  passage  merely. 
You  have  an  object,  which  is  this:  to  get  home,  to  do  your  duty  to  your 
family,  friends,  and  fellow-countrymen,  to  attain  inward  freedom, 
serenity,  happiness,  contentment.  Style  takes  your  fancy,  arguing 
takes  your  fancy,  and  you  forget  your  home  and  want  to  make  your 
abode  with  them  and  stay  with  them,  on  the  plea  that  they  are  taking. 
Who  denies  that  they  are  taking?  but  as  places  of  passage,  as  inns. 
And  when  I  say  this,  you  suppose  me  to  be  attacking  the  care  for  style, 
the  care  for  argument.  I  am  not;  I  attack  the  resting  in  them,  the  not 
looking  to  the  end  which  is  beyond  them.' 

—  M.  ARNOLD:  Wordsworth. 

Though  thought  is  the  thing  of  ultimate  importance  in 
literature,  it  is  not  as  easily  classified  as  the  elements  and 
qualities  of  style,  and  there  is  less  that  can  be  said  about  it  in 
a  text-book.  We  may,  however,  ask  the  question,  "What 
kind  of  thought  is  found  in  literature?  What  is  it  about?" 


THOUGHT  AND  STYLE  83 

In  the  essay  on  Wordsworth,  quoted  above,  the  great  critic, 
Matthew  Arnold,  answers  our  question  thus : 

Long  ago,  in  speaking  of  Homer,  I  said  that  the  noble  and  pro 
found  application  of  ideas  to  life  is  the  most  essential  part  of  poetic 
greatness.  I  said  that  a  great  poet  receives  his  distinctive  character  of 
superiority  from  his  application,  under  the  conditions  immutably  fixed 
by  the  laws  of  poetic  beauty  and  poetic  truth,  from  his  application,  I 
say,  to  his  subject,  whatever  it  may  be,  of  the  ideas 

'On  man,  on  nature  and  on  human  life,' 

which  he  has  acquired  for  himself  ...  It  is  important,  therefore,  to 
hold  fast  to  this:  that  poetry  is  at  bottom  a  criticism  of  life;  that  the 
greatness  of  a  poet  lies  in  his  powerful  and  beautiful  application  of 
ideas  to  life  —  to  the  question:  How  to  live. 

This  sounds  very  solemn  indeed.  It  may  seem  to  us  that 
Arnold  expects  all  literature  to  be  profoundly  serious.  Per 
haps  we  have  not  quite  understood  his  phrase,  "how  to  live," 
and  the  word  " moral"  as  we  have  seen  it  used  by  other 
critics.  If  we  study  carefully  such  expressions  as  they  are 
used  in  literary  criticism,  we  shall  find  that  the  writers  be 
lieve  that  the  best  literature  touches  or  relates  to  some  phase 
of  life.  Now,  there  are  many  phases  of  life,  and  each  has,  or 
may  have,  its  literature.  There  is  the  serious  phase,  and  its 
literature  sets  forth  the  profounder  emotions.  A  poem  in 
this  class  is  Wordsworth's  Tintern  Abbey,  which  expresses 
a  feeling  for  nature  both  deep  and  exalted.  Gray's  Elegy, 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  Shakespeare's  Lear,  Bryant's  Forest 
Hymn  all  express  the  profounder  emotions  or  depict  the 
tragic  side  of  life. 

There  is,  however,  another  side  of  life.  We  need  to  be 
inspired  to  cheerfulness  and  gaiety  as  well  as  to  serious 
thought.  Recreation  is  as  necessary  as  effort.  It  is  right, 
then,  that  there  should  be  a  cheerful  and  gay  type  of 


84  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

literature,  for  this  corresponds  to  a  phase  of  life.  Poems  like 
Burns's  Tarn  O'Shanter  or  Holmes's  One  Hoss  Shay,  plays 
like  Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night  or  Sheridan's  Rivals,  which 
move  us  to  laughter,  are  as  legitimately  literature  as  any 
that  set  us  to  thinking  profoundly  or  move  us  to  tears. 

If  life  is  the  subject  of  literature,  it  naturally  follows  that  the 
reader  must  have  had  a  certain  experience  of  life  before  he  can 
truly  appreciate  literature.  Certain  books  are  less  suitable  for  the 
young  than  for  the  more  mature  because  they  discuss  questions 
which  do  not  ordinarily  enter  into  the  experience  of  the  young.  If 
a  young  person  finds  that  he  does  not  care  for  a  literary  classic, 
he  should  not  blame  himself  and  depreciate  his  own  powers,  but 
rather  wait  until  he  has  grown  to  it.  A  little  time  and  a  broader 
experience  of  the  world  will  often  teach  the  beauty  and  value  of 
what  has,  a  short  time  before,  seemed  without  significance.  In  order 
to  understand  a  certain  piece  of  literature  one  need  not  have  had 
the  exact  experience  of  life  described  in  that  piece;  but  he  must 
have  had  such  experience  and  gained  such  insight  as  will  enable 
him  to  comprehend  imaginatively  the  phase  of  life  set  forth.  On 
the  other  hand,  older  persons  may  grow  out  of  sympathy  with 
phases  of  life  described  in  books  written  for  younger  persons,  and 
therefore  cease  to  care  for  books  that  still  interest  the  young.  Even 
the  race  outgrows  certain  experiences,  and  with  them  the  literary 
forms  and  subjects  they  have  inspired;  as  the  Renaissance  dis 
carded  Mediae  valism. 

Some  of  our  best  writers  exalt  us  emotionally  by  awakening 
in  us  a  new  and  fuller  sense  of  the  beauty  of  the  world  about 
us.  The  greatest  of  these  love  Nature  not  merely  for  her 
beauty,  but  because  she  gives  them  peace  and  strength.  To 
them  "she  speaks  a  various  language,"  as  clearly  as  a  human 
friend  might  speak  in  words,  and  her  message  to  them  they 
translate  to  us.  These  are  poets  gifted  with  the  "interpre- 


THOUGHT  AND  STYLE  85 

tative  imagination."  All  poets  who  write  of  nature  have 
more  or  less  of  this  gift.  Bryant  is  the  greatest  of  the  Amer 
ican  poets  in  this  respect.  Wordsworth,  the  foremost  of  all 
the  poets  of  the  world  in  his  sympathy  with  Nature,  says 
that  communion  with  her  awakens  in  him 

that  blessed  mood 

In  which  the  burden  of  the  mystery, 
In  which  the  heavy  and  the  weary  weight 
Of  all  this  unintelligible  world, 
Is  lightened :  —  that  serene  and  blessed  mood, 
In  which  the  affections  gently  lead  us  on, — 
Until,  the  breath  of  this  corporeal  frame, 
And  e'en  the  motions  of  our  human  blood 
Almost  suspended,  we  are  laid  asleep 
In  body  and  become  a  living  soul: 
While  with  an  eye  made  quiet  by  the  power 
Of  harmony,  and  the  deep  power  of  joy, 
We  see  into  the  life  of  things. 
—  Lines  Composed  a  Few  Miles  above  Tintern  Abbey. 

Literature  re-creates  life  —  every  aspect  of  life.  The 
nobler  literature  represents  the  more  exalted  aspects  of  life 
and  of  nature.  But  all  is  worthy  that  leaves  the  reader 
better,  stronger,  happier.  As  regards  style,  a  man  of  literary 
genius  has  unusual  taste  and  power.  As  regards  thought, 
he  has  remarkable  insight  into  the  principles  of  life  and 
nature.  His  insight  is  sometimes  very  deep,  though  his 
range  is  not  very  broad  (e.  g.}  Wordsworth).  English  liter 
ature  boasts  one  writer  whose  insight  was  penetrating  and 
profound,  and  whose  range  was  as  broad  as  life  —  the 
"myriad-minded"  Shakespeare. 

We  often  use  the  word  moral  in  a  more  restricted  sense 
than  that  just  explained.  We  say  that  a  poem  or  a  story  has 
a  moral  when  it  expresses  or  implies  an  exhortation  to  some 


86  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

definite  improvement  in  the  character  or  manners  of  the 
reader.  Some  of  the  noblest  pieces  of  literature  have  no 
such  definite  lesson  expressed  or  implied.  They  aim  to  lift 
us  by  putting  us  into  a  high  and  noble  frame  of  mind,  or 
by  rousing  in  us  exalted  emotions;  to  refine  us  through  our 
sympathy  with  the  beautiful.  These  pieces  of  literature 
have  nothing  that,  in  the  restricted  sense  of  the  word  can 
be  called  a  moral,  though  their  thought  is  in  the  realm  of  the 
truly  moral,  because  it  touches  the  great  question  "how  to 
live"  and  feel  and  think. 

Some  pieces  of  literature  that  teach  a  definite  lesson,  a 
moral  in  the  restricted  sense  of  the  word,  hold  it  "in  solution," 
to  borrow  a  term  from  the  language  of  science.  Hawthorne 
gives  no  definite  statement  of  the  moral  in  The  Great  Stone 
Face;  but  we  cannot  help  knowing  that  he  meant  to  have  us 
understand  that  Ernest  became  good  and  noble  by  med 
itating  on  something  good  and  noble,  and  we  feel  that  the 
author  is  covertly  advising  us  to  follow  the  example  of 
Ernest.  Other  pieces  of  literature  "precipitate,"  or  "crys- 
talize"  the  moral  thought  in  definite  words.  The  last 
stanza  of  Holmes's  Chambered  Nautilus  and  the  third  para 
graph  from  the  last  of  Hawthorne's  Snow-Image  state  the 
exhortation  and  the  moral  thought  directly  and  distinctly 
in  so  many  words.  The  majority  of  readers  prefer,  perhaps, 
the  moral  "in  solution"  to  the  " crystalized "  moral;  for 
they  enjoy  the  discovery  of  the  meaning  for  themselves. 
But  we  can  hardly  say  that  one  method  is  better  under  all 
circumstances  than  the  other.  The  taste  and  judgment  of 
great  writers  lead  them  to  use  sometimes  one  method, 
sometimes  the  other. 

One  way  of  teaching  a  moral,  lesson  is  through  Allegory. 
The  allegory  describes  one  thing  in  terms  belonging  literally 


THOUGHT  AND  STYLE  87 

to  another,  and  is  sometimes  called  "a  continued  metaphor." 
A  great  allegory  in  English  is  Bunyan's  Pilgrim  Progress, 
which  describes  life  in  terms  of  a  traveller's  journey  from  one 
city  to  another.  Here  the  application  of  the  moral  thought 
to  life  is  made  clear  by  the  names:  Slough  of  Despond, 
Doubting  Castle,  Giant  Despair,  etc.  Some  of  Hawthorne's 
stories  are  allegorical,  as  The  Birthmark  and  The  Minister's 
Black  Veil 

Parables  and  Fables  also  teach  definite  moral  lessons. 
Read  some  of  the  parables  of  the  New  Testament  and  some 
of  the  fables  of  ^Esop,  and  state  clearly  the  lesson  taught  by 
them. 

We  may  consider  briefly  one  other  subject  connected 
with  the  thought  element  of  literature  —  the  relative  value 
of  fact  and  truth. 

A  book  is  true  to  fact  when  it  is  an  exact  description  of 
something  as  it  exists,  or  an  accurate  narration  of  events  as 
they  occurred,  or  a  precise  explanation  of  causes,  effects, 
relations,  etc.  In  the  domain  of  science,  fact  is  of  the  greatest 
interest  and  importance. 

In  the  domain  of  literature  fact  becomes  less  important 
and  truth  is  the  main  consideration.  We  say  that  a  piece  of 
literature  has  truth  when  it  is  entirely  consistent  in  itself  and 
to  the  laws  of  the  realm  in  which  its  class  places  it.  If  it 
is  in  the  realm  of  human  life,  it  must  be  true  to  the  laws  — 
physical,  mental,  moral  —  that  govern  man.  It  must  show 
the  working  out  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  the  great  moral 
laws  of  the  universe  —  the  effect  of  man's  acts  on  his  char 
acter  and  on  events,  and  the  effect  of  his  environment  on 
him.  If  the  subject  is  in  fairy-land,  it  must  be  consistent 
with  the  conventions  and  traditions  of  fairy-land.  Alice  in 
Wonderland  is  a  marvelous  tale;  but  it  does  not  pretend  to 


88  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

be  a  narration  of  actual  experience,  and  anything  is  possible 
in  a  dream.  There  may  never  have  been  four  girls  in  a 
family  exactly  like  Miss  Alcott's  Little  Women,  who  did 
precisely  the  things  they  are  said  to  have  done;  but  Meg,  Jo, 
Beth,  and  Amy  have  conceivable  and  consistent  characters 
and  personalities,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  book  incon 
sistent  with  the  life  it  pretends  to  depict.  Therefore  Little 
Women  is,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  "convincing"  and 
true. 

True  books  of  fiction  are  often  great  teachers.  The  authors 
have  unusual  insight  into  human  life  and  motives,  and  con 
struct  their  plots  to  bring  out  clearly  some  phase  of  life. 
Even  when  they  base  their  plots  or  characters  in  part  on 
fact,  they  select  and  re-combine,  omitting  the  accidental 
and  unrelated,  throwing  emphasis  on  the  essential,  so  that 
they  clear  away  the  impediments  and  the  multiplicity  of 
detail  that  obstruct  our  weaker  view  in  actual  life,  and  show 
us  a  related  series  of  events  leading  to  some  important 
effect  —  the  climax  of  the  story.  In  them,  "  Experience  is 
converted  into  thought,  as  a  mulberry  leaf  is  converted  into 
satin."  (Emerson,  The  American  Scholar.) 

The  world  of  the  imagination  is  not  the  world  of  abstraction  and 
nonentity,  as  some  conceive,  but  a  world  formed  out  of  chaos  by  a 
sense  of  the  beauty  that  is  in  man  and  the  earth  on  which  he  dwells. 
Is  is  the  realm  of  Might-be,  our  haven  of  refuge  from  the  short-comings 
and  disillusions  of  life.  It  is,  to  quote  Spenser,  who  knew  it  well,  — 

'  The  world's  sweet  inn  from  care  and  wearisome  turmoil.' 

Do  we  believe,  then,  that  God  gave  us  in  mockery  that  splendid  faculty 
of  sympathy  with  things  that  are  'a  joy  forever'?  For  my  part,  I  be 
lieve  that  the  love  and  study  of  works  of  imagination  is  of  practical 
utility  in  a  country  so  profoundly  material  (or,  as  we  like  to  call  it, 
practical)  in  its  leading  tendencies  as  ours.  The  hunger  after  purely 


THOUGHT  AND  STYLE  89 

intellectual  delights,  the  content  with  ideal  possessions,  cannot  but  be 
good  for  us  in  maintaining  a  wholesome  balance  of  the  character  and 
faculties.  I  for  one  shall  never  be  persuaded  that  Shakespeare  left  a 
less  useful  legacy  to  his  countrymen  than  Watt.  We  hold  all  the  deep 
est,  all  the  highest  satisfactions  of  life  as  tenants  of  the  imagination. 

—  LOWELL:  Books  and  Libraries. 

Turn  back,  now,  to  the  remarks  on  literature  that  con 
stitute  Chapter  I  of  Part  I  of  this  book,  and  read  again 
DeQuincey's  words  on  the  two  kinds  of  literature.  We  may 
use  here  the  terms  he  has  given  us :  fact  is  the  material  of  the 
literature  of  knowledge;  truth  is  the  material  of  the  literature 
of  power. 


CHAPTER  X 
HOW  TO  STUDY  A  PIECE  OF  LITERATURE 

The  style  of  a  piece  of  literature  is  sometimes  called,  in 
metaphor,  the  dress  of  the  thought.  We  all  know  that 
different  dress  is  suitable  for  different  occasions.  For  simple, 
every-day  life,  simple  dress  is  most  appropriate;  for  more 
formal  occasions,  we  don  more  elaborate  attire.  In  like 
manner,  what  is  proper  and  in  good  taste  in  literary  expres 
sion  depends  entirely  on  the  character  of  the  thought  to  be 
expressed. 

The  general  principle  regarding  the  adaptation  of  style  to 
thought  is  strongly  put  by  Herbert  Spencer  in  his  Philosophy 
of  Style.  The  chief  consideration  in  expression  is  economy 
of  the  reader's  attention;  i.  e.}  that  style  is  best  which  dis 
tracts  the  attention  of  the  reader  least  to  itself  and  con 
centrates  it  most  on  the  thought.  All  the  graces  of  adorn 
ment,  all  the  devices  of  expression  used,  should  emphasize 
not  themselves  but  the  thought  they  express,  the  effect  they 
are  intended  to  produce. 

If  then,  the  thought  and  the  effect  are  the  main  consider 
ations,  we  have  first,  in  studying  a  piece  of  literature,  to 
determine  what  is  the  thought  and  what  is  the  effect  desired; 
i.  e.}  what  is  the  "informing  spirit"  of  this  work  of  art. 
The  study  of  the  writer's  style  is  a  study  of  the  means  by 
which  he  forcibly  and  elegantly  expresses  his  thought  or 
produces  his  effect. 

90 


HOW  TO  STUDY  A  PIECE  OF  LITERATURE       91 

To  ascertain  the  thought  we  must  first  give  the  poem  (or 
story,  or  essay)  a  careful,  though  not  detailed,  reading. 
After  this  preliminary  reading  we  should  be  able  to  state 
concisely  what  thought  the  author  wishes  to  convey,  or 
what  effect  he  wishes  to  produce.  We  should  know  whether 
the  spirit  of  the  work  is  pathetic,  humorous,  animated, 
vigorous,  dignified  or  sublime;  and  we  should  have  noticed 
whether  the  style  is  touching,  lively,  energetic,  brilliant, 
stately,  lofty,  or  splendid.  We  should  see  the  general  plan, 
also,  of  the  work. 

We  should  next  consult  biographies,  histories  of  literature, 
and  critical  works  to  learn  whether  the  circumstances  of 
composition  throw  any  light  on  the  author's  purpose  or 
method.  Sometimes  they  do  not;  often  they  do.  One  of 
Longfellow's  poems  grew  out  of  the  circumstances  of  his 
visit  to  the  United  States  Arsenal  at  Springfield,  Massachu 
setts,  and  it  is  impossible  to  appreciate  the  poem,  or  even 
to  study  it  intelligently,  without  first  knowing  what  was 
said  on  that  occasion. 

We  are  now  ready  to  examine  our  classic  in  detail.  Since 
every  piece  of  writing  worth  careful  study  shows  perfect 
adaptation  of  style  to  thought,  we  shall  understand  and  feel 
the  thought  better  for  the  attention  we  give  the  style.  We 
shall  gain  by  saying  definitely  what  we  find  in  the  diction, 
the  sentence-structure,  the  figures,  the  allusions,  the  meter, 
the  melody,  the  harmony  of  the  classic  that  impresses  on  us 
more  deeply  the  effect  the  writer  wishes  to  produce.  Our 
study  of  rhetorical  devices  should  not  be  a  mere  listing  of 
epithets,  figures,  etc.;  it  should  be  a  clear  explanation  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  writer,  by  his  form  of  expression,  makes 
his  meaning  more  effective.  This  is  the  only  sort  of  rhetorical 
study  sufficiently  vital  to  be  worth  our  time  and  effort;  and 


92  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

this  is  worth  our  time  because  it  gives  us  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  the  author's  thought  and  art. 

Many  students  wish  to  content  themselves  with  the  first 
preliminary  reading  of  a  classic,  and  do  not  wish  to  go  on 
with  a  study  of  details.  Bacon  was  right  when  he  said, 
"Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed." 
It  is  a  good  thing  to  be  able  to  read  books  of  no  great  im 
portance  "in  part"  and  not  "curiously."  But  Bacon  was 
equally  right  when  he  added,  "and  some  few  to  be  chewed 
and  digested."  We  make  a  great  mistake  if  we  fail  to  read 
those  that  come  under  this  last  class  "wholly,  and  with 
diligence  and  attention."  Without  careful  study  of  the 
details  of  style,  we  miss  the  fine  points  in  the  development 
of  the  thought,  and  we  miss  also  much  of  the  force  lent  by 
the  suitable  expression.  In  a  general  reading  we  may,  in 
minor  details,  even  misinterpret  our  author.  He  has  em 
ployed  no  word  without  a  definite  purpose,  and  it  is  our  duty 
to  give  him  a  fair  hearing. 

Ruskin,  in  Sesame  amd  Lilies,  has  spoken  strongly  of  the 
necessity  for  careful  study  of  literature.  The  following 
passages  are  particularly  note-worthy. 

—  At  least  be  sure  that  you  go  to  the  author  to  get  his  meaning, 
not  to  find  yours.  Judge  it  afterward,  if  you  think  yourself  qualified 
to  do  so;  but  ascertain  it  first.  — 

And  therefore,  first  of  all,  I  tell  you,  earnestly  and  authoritatively 
(I  know  I  am  right  in  this),  you  must  get  into  the  habit  of  looking  in 
tensely  at  words,  and  assuring  yourself  of  their  meaning,  syllable  by 
syllable  —  nay,  letter  by  letter. — 

Then,  after  explaining  carefully  a  passage  from  Milton's 
Lycidas,  he  continues: 

We  have  got  something  out  of  the  lines,  I  think,  and  much  more  yefc 
is  to  be  found  in  them;  but  we  have  done  enough  by  way  of  example  of 


HOW  TO  STUDY  A  PIECE  OF  LITERATURE        93 

the  kind  of  word-by-word  examination  of  your  author  which  is  rightly 
called  'reading;'  watching  every  accent  and  expression,  and  putting 
ourselves  always  in  the  author's  place,  annihilating  our  own  personality, 
and  seeking  to  enter  into  his,  so  as  to  be  able  assuredly  to  say,  'Thus 
Milton  thought/  not  'Thus  I  thought,  in  mis-reading  Milton.' 

The  understanding  is  not  the  only  one  of  our  faculties  that 
needs  to  be  thoroughly  alive  in  our  study  of  literature.  The 
activity  of  the  imagination  is  exceedingly  important.  We 
do  not  fully  comprehend  unless  we  realize  so  vividly  the 
thought  of  the  author  that  we  actually,  for  the  time,  believe 
that  we  see  the  sights,  hear  the  sounds,  smell  the  odors,  taste 
the  food,  feel  the  sensations,  experience  the  emotions,  and 
live  the  life  described.  The  purpose  of  the  author  is  to  make 
the  reader  "live  sympathetically  through  the  experience  he 
is  interpreting."  We  must  give  ourselves,  for  the  time, 
wholly  into  the  author's  power,  to  be  guided  and  controlled, 
intellectually  and  emotionally,  by  him.  We  may  judge 
afterward,  if  we  will,  but  we  must  first  know. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  realize  clearly  a  general  or  abstract 
statement  than  a  specific  or  concrete  one.  It  is,  therefore, 
often  desirable  that  the  reader  illustrate  an  abstract  state 
ment  for  himself,  if  the  writer  does  not  do  it  for  him.  He 
will  thus  make  the  statement  clearer,  and  at  tfre  same  time 
enlist  in  its  interpretation  his  imaginative  powers.  An 
example  of  such  illustration  is  to  be  found  in  this  volume 
in  the  study  of  Emerson's  Heroism,  where  an  abstract  moral 
question  is  converted  into  a  concrete  one  by  reference  to  a 
story  involving  it.  (See  page  285  and  Appendix  II.] 

It  is  easier  to  state  the  principles  discussed  above  than  it 
is  to  give  rules  for  their  application.  For  the  precise  method 
of  studying  any  work  of  literature  depends  on  the  construc 
tion  of  that  particular  work,  and  directions  general  enough 


94  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

to  apply  universally  may  be  of  little  assistance  in  any  in 
dividual  case.  The  studies  in  this  volume  are  intended  to 
illustrate  the  application  of  these  principles  under  a  variety 
of  circumstances.  A  few  concise  directions  at  this  point 
may,  however,  be  helpful. 

First,  recognize  clearly  the  intellectual  basis  of  the  work. 
In  A  Forest  Hymn  Bryant  declares  that  the  forest  is  a  proper 
place  to  worship  God.  In  Westminster  Abbey  Irving  attempts 
to  transmit  to  us  the  sense  of  melancholy  that  filled  him 
when  he  visited  the  Abbey.  In  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher 
Poe  wishes  to  create  in  his  readers  a  sensation  of  horror. 
In  Compensation  Emerson  expounds  the  doctrine  that  every 
advantage  in  life  has  a  counterbalancing  disadvantage,  and 
vice  versa. 

After  the  clear  recognition  of  the  thought,  try  to  discover 
the  author's  method  of  working  out  his  purpose  concretely 
and  artistically,  of  inspiring  the  imagination,  of  pleasing 
the  fancy,  of  quickening  the  mental  powers  of  his  readers. 
The  beauty  of  Bryant's  poem  is  in  its  noble  descriptions  of 
the  forest,  from  a  worshipper's  point  of  view.  The  charm 
of  Irving's  sketch  is  in  the  sympathy  with  which  he  points 
out  evidences  of  the  decay  of  earthly  glory  and  power.  Poe 
horrifies  us  with  a  tale  in  which  he  unites  in  vivid  narrative 
two  startling  motifs.  Emerson  interests  us  by  means  of 
exposition,  elucidation,  and  illustration. 

Then  study  the  form  of  expression;  i.  e.,  the  style.  Point 
out  the  elements  that  give  lightness,  humor,  beauty,  vivacity, 
vigor,  force,  dignity,  or  whatever  the  quality  may  be,  to 
the  work.  Show  how  the  expression  is  so  thoroughly  in 
harmony  with  the  thought,  the  tone,  the  artistic  method 
that  the  whole  creates  a  unified  work  of  art  —  a  piece  of 
literature. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  A  PIECE  OF  LITERATURE        95 

A  final  reading  of  our  classic  should  be  a  complete  and 
accurate  vocal  interpretation  of  it.  We  have  come  to  under 
stand  it  thoroughly  in  the  second,  or  detailed,  reading,  and 
now  with  complete  sympathy  we  express  the  author's  work 
for  him  —  sense  and  sound.  No  worthy  vocal  expression  can 
come  except  through  entire  comprehension  of  and  sympathy 
with  the  author;  and  this  final  vocal  interpretation,  as  a 
summary  and  culmination  of  the  study  of  a  classic,  should 
never  be  omitted. 


THE   STUDY   OF   LITERATURE 

The  following  quotations  tell  us  what  some  scholars  and 
men  of  genius  have  thought  of  literature  and  the  study  of 
literature. 

The  study  of  literature  is  the  study  of  life  and  feeling  as  it  is  reflected 
in  the  best  prose  and  poetry. 

—  HART:  Rhetoric. 

Criticism  may  be  broadly  and  provisionally  defined  as  the  intelligent 
appreciation  of  any  work  of  art,  and  by  consequence  the  just  estimate  of 
its  value  and  rank.* 

—  WINCHESTER:  Some  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism. 

[Criticism  is]  a  disinterested  endeavor  to  learn  and  propagate  the  best 
that  is  known  and  thought  in  the  world. 

—  M.  ARNOLD:  The  Function  of  Criticism. 

The  poet  is,  then,  gifted  in  two  ways:  he  discerns  the  essential  mean 
ings  of  things,  and  he  has  the  technical  ability  to  make  others  see  with 
his  eyes  and  feel  with  his  feelings.t 

—  SHERMAN:  Analytics. 

Poetry  is  the  suggestion  by  the  imagination  of  noble  grounds  for 
noble  emotions. 

—  LUSKIN:  Modern  Painters,  III. 

Poetry  is  the  perpetual  endeavor  to  express  the  spirit  of  things. 

—  EMERSON. 

Truth  is  the  aim  of  literature.  Sincerity  is  moral  truth.  Beauty 
is  aesthetic  truth. 

—  LEWES  :  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature,  I. 

*  Used  by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Company, 
t  Used  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Ginn  &  Company. 

96 


HOW  TO  STUDY  A  PIECE  OF  LITERATURE        97 

Poetry  is  the  breath  and  finer  spirit  of  all  knowledge;  it  is  the  im 
passioned  expression  which  is  in  the  countenance  of  all  science. 

—  WORDSWORTH:  Prefaces. 

Poetry  is  the  spontaneous  overflow  of  powerful  feelings,   taking 
its  origin  from  emotion  recollected  in  tranquility. 

—  WORDSWORTH:  Prefaces. 
Poetry  is  the  utterance  of  a  passion  for  truth,  beauty,  and  power, 

embodying  and  illustrating  its  conceptions  by  imagination  and  fancy, 
and  modulating  its  language  on  the  principle  of  variety  and  uniformity. 

—  LEIGH  HUNT:  What  is  Poetry? 

[Poetry  is]  the  presentment  of  the  correspondence  of  the  Universe  to 
the  Deity,  of  the  natural  to  the  spiritual,  and  of  the  actual  to  the  ideal. 

—  BROWNING:  Essay  on  Shelley. 


98  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  TO  THE  RHETORICAL  INTRODUCTION 

WINCHESTER,  C.  T.:  Some  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism.  New 
York,  1900. 

GENUNG,  J.  F. :  The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric.     Boston,  1900. 

JOHNSON,  C.  F. :  Forms  of  English  Poetry,    New  York,  1904. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.:  A  Handbook  of  Poetics.    Boston,  1885. 

CORSON,  HIRAM:  A  Primer  of  English  Verse.    Boston,  1892. 

SHERMAN,  L.  A. :  Analytics  of  Literature.    Boston,  1893. 

HILL,  A.  S. :  The  Principles  of  Rhetoric.    New  York,  1895. 

WENDELL,  BARRETT:  English  Composition.    New  York,  1896. 

HART,  J.  S. :  Composition  and  Rhetoric.    Philadelphia,  1882. 

HAMILTON,  CLAYTON:  Materials  and  Methods  of  Fiction.  New  York, 
1908. 

MINTO,  WILLIAM:  A  Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature.  Boston, 
1893. 

BRIGHT,  J.  W.,  and  MILLER,  R.  D.:  The  Elements  of  English  Versi 
fication.  Boston,  1910. 

BATES,  ARLO:  Talks  on  the  Study  of  Literature.    Boston,  1897. 

ALDEN,  R.  C. :  An  Introduction  to  Poetry.    New  York,  1909. 

LEWIS,  C.  M.  :The  Principles  of  English  Verse.    New  York,  1907. 

NEILSON,  W.  A. :  Essentials  of  Poetry.   Boston,  1912. 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.  and  SCOTT,  F.  N.:  An  Introduction  to  the  Methods 
and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism,  Vol.  I.  Boston,  1899. 

PAUL,  H.  G. :  Teaching  Lyric  Poetry;  The  English  Journal,  October 
and  November,  1912. 

CANBY,  H.  S. :  The  Short  Story  in  English.    New  York,  1909. 

MATTHEWS,  BRANDER:  The  Short  Story.    New  York,  1907. 

CANBY,  H.  S. :  A  Study  of  the  Short  Story.    New  York,  1913. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B. :  The  Beginnings  of  Poetry.    New  York,  1901. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  CRITICAL  READINGS 

RUSKIN,  JOHN:  "Of  the  Pathetic  Fallacy;"  in  Modern  Painters, 
Part  IV,  Chapter  XII. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  A  PIECE  OF  LITERATURE        99 

PATER,  WALTER:  "An  Essay  on  Style;"  in  Appreciations. 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW:  "The  Study  of  Poetry;'7  in  Essays  in  Criti 
cism,  Second  Series. 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW:  "The  Function  of  Criticism  at  the  Present 
Time;"  in  Essays  in  Criticism,  First  Series. 

LESSING,  G.  E.iLaocoon;  translated  into  English  by  Ellen  Frothing- 
ham. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.:  The  Nature  of  Poetry. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.:  Aspects  of  Poetry. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C. :  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philosophy. 

WORDSWORTH,  WILLIAM:  Prefaces. 

COLERIDGE,  S.  T. :  Bibliographia  Literaria. 


PART  II 
INTENSIVE  STUDIES 

CHAPTER  XI 
WASHINGTON  IRVING 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life,  by  David  J.  Hill;  New  York,  1879. 

Life,  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner;  Boston,  1881. 

Life  and  Letters,  3  Vol.,  by  Pierre  L.  Irving;  New  York,  1869. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

The  Sketch  Book,  Bracebridge  Hall,  Wolf  erf  s  Roost,  Tales  of  a  Traveller; 
and  see  Appendix  I,  titles  9  to  24  inclusive. 

STRATFORD-ON-AVON 

I.  Read  the  Sketch,  following  the  map,  and  consulting  the 
pictures.     Is  Irving's  purpose  to  narrate  or  to  describe? 
Does  he  describe  chiefly  to  tell  the  appearance  of  persons 
and  places,  or  to  reproduce  in  the  reader  the  effect  the  visit 
had  on  himself,  and  the  thoughts  inspired  in  him  by  it? 

II.  Study  the  Sketch  carefully  under  the  following  heads; 
and  this  time  study  also  the  notes  in  your  text : — 

1.  Introduction    (paragraphs    1-3).      Where    did    Irving 

stop  when  he  visited  Stratford?     Explain  the  first 

words  of  paragraph  2.    What  figure  used  in  paragraph 

1  is  continued  in  paragraph  2?    Explain  the  allusion 

101 


102       :  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


at  the  end  of  2.     What  does  "  quickening "  mean 
(paragraph  3)? 

2.  Method  of  description :  The  author  tells  us  what  he  saw 

in  a  day's  walk. 
The  point  on  which 
the  Sketch  turns 
and  on  which  it  is 
based  is  mentioned 
in  paragraph  16.  Is 
the  unity  good? 

3.  Descriptive  passages: 

observe  the  sugges- 
tiveness  and  single 
impression  of  each; 
the  use  of  detail  in 
sight  and  sound; 
the  choice  of 
words  —  significant 
adjectives  and 
verbs;  figures  and 
comparisons;  allu 
sions. 
The  birthplace: 


a. 

paragraph  4. 

b.  The     churchyard: 

paragraph  8. 

c.  The  sexton's  house : 

paragraph  9. 

d.  The  church:  para 

graph     13 ;     in 
terior:  paragraphs  13-16. 

e.  Spring  in  England:  paragraphs  3,  22,  23. 


A.  Red  Horse  Inn 

B.  Shakespeare  House 

C.  New  Place 


D.  Grammar  School 

E.  Church  and 

Churchyard 


Chart  of  Stratford-on-Avon 


WASHINGTON  IRVING  103 

f.  The  road  to  Charlecote,  and  the  Park:  paragraphs 

24,  26-30.    Here  the  point  of  view  progesses. 

g.  Charlecote  Hall:  paragraphs  29,  31;  interior:  para 

graphs  32-35. 

h.  The  old  lady:  paragraph  5. 
i.  The  portraits:  paragraph  34. 

4.  The  humor  of  the  Sketch:  pretense  to  believe  or  to  take 

seriously  what  is  absurd;  contradiction  between  the 
real  meaning  of  words  and  the  author's  meaning  — 
use  of  long  and  important  words  for  trifling  things; 
humor  in  figures  and  in  allusions;  character  of  the 
humor  (kindly  or  bitter);  etc. 

a.  The  relics:  paragraphs  5,  6,  7,  11,  12. 

b.  The  Lucys:  paragraphs  31,  33. 

c.  Explain  Shakespeare's  humor  in  the  quotation  from 
Merry  Wives  (paragraph  32) . 

5.  Power  of  Irving's  imagination  to  respond  to  suggestion : 

paragraphs  6,  23,  28,  35,  37,  38. 

6.  Moralizing;  i.  e.  application  to  life  in  general  of  ideas 

suggested  by  circumstances:  paragraphs  1,  25,  39. 

7.  Irving's  sympathy  with  the  youthful  exploits  of  Shake 

speare:  paragraphs  17,  18,  19,  20,  40. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare  mentioned  and 

quoted  in  the  Sketch;  the  notes  will  help  you  to  the 
names  of  the  plays.    Explain  why  each  of  the  allusions 
is  appropriate  here. 
III.     Read  the  Sketch  again,  this  time  aloud.     Note  the 

passages  that  seem  to  you  especially  good  in  sound,  and 

explain  the  reason  for  your  choice. 


104 


STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 

I.  Read  the  Sketch  carefully,  consulting  plan,  pictures,  and" 

the  following  outline: 

Paragraph  1 :  Introduc 
tion  :  atmosphere  given  to 
Sketch. 

Paragraph  2:  The  ap 
proach  to  Abbey  through 
the  dark  passage  and  the 
cloister. 

Paragraph  3 :  The  clois 
ter-square. 

Paragraph  4:  The  clois 
ter-walk. 

Paragraphs  5,  6:  First 
impressions  of  the 
Church. 

Paragraph  7:  The 
Poets'  Corner. 

Paragraph  8:  The 
Chapels  —  tombs  of 
kings  and  nobles. 

Paragraph  9:  The 
Crusader's  Tomb. 

Paragraph  10:  The 
Nightingale  Tomb. 

Paragraph  11:  Sounds 
of  life  without. 

Paragraphs  12-18:  The 


A.  The  Altar  and  the  Chancel. 

C.  Chapels  Containing  Tombs. 

D.  The  Dark  Cloister. 

E.  The  Tomb  of  Elizabeth. 

Ed.  The  Chapel  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
H.VII.  The  Chapel  of  Henry  VII. 


pe 
M.  The  Tomb  of  Mary. 

ing 
P.  The  Poets'  Corner. 


ary 

N.  The  Nightingale  Tomb. 
P.  The  Poets'  Corne 

Plan  of  Westminster  and  Cloister 


Chapel  of  Henry  VII. 


Paragraphs  19,  20:  Sounds  of  the  evening  service. 


WASHINGTON  IRVING  105 

Paragraph  21:  Meditation  during  vespers. 

Paragraph  22:  The  Chapel  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 

Paragraph  23 :  The  departure. 

Paragraphs  24,  25 :  The  lesson. 

We  have  spent  the  afternoon  in  walking  with  Irving  among 
the  monuments.  The  passage  of  time  is  indicated  in  para 
graphs  3,  12,  19,  20,  21,  23. 

II.  Even  at  the  first  reading  of  this  Sketch,  one  is  struck 
by  the  absence  of  detail  in  description.    The  reason  for  this 
lack  of  detail  is  stated  in  paragraph  24.     The  few  details 
given  are  mentioned  not  so  much  for  their  physical  appear 
ance  as  for  the  effect  they  produce  on  the  beholder.     In  a 
number  of  cases  the  author  is  led  from  the  object  described 
to  moralize  on  human  life  (paragraphs  7,  15,  22,  24).    The 
finest  aspect  of  the  Sketch  is  found  in  its  tone.    The  author 
strikes  the  key-note  in  the  very  first  sentence.    The  season 
of  the  dying  year  harmonizes  with  the  sentiment  of  pleasant 
meditative  melancholy,  growing  out  of  the  consciousness  of 
the  transitoriness  of  all  things  earthly.     "Sic  transit  gloria 
mundi."    The  human  heart  longs  for  an  immortal  memorial, 
but  even  these  monuments  of  stone  decay  and  pass  away. 
Read  the  Sketch  through  again  aloud,  noting  the  diction,  the 
sentence-structure,  the  figures,  and  the  sound  effects  that 
bring  out  the  tone.    Note,  too,  how  the  writer's  imagination 
responds  constantly  to  the  influence  of  the  Abbey. 

III.  Study  in  detail:— 

1.  Contrast  to  the  main  tone  in  paragraphs  3  and  11. 

2.  Contrast  of  the  bright  and  the  gloomy  in  paragraphs 

14,   15. 

3.  Harmony  of  sound  and  thought  in  paragraph  20. 

4.  Consult  the  notes  in  your  text  for  explanation  of  allu 

sions  and  other  difficult  points. 


106         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

IV.  The  Sketch  Book  was  published  in  1819.     With  the 
concluding  paragraph  of  Westminster  Abbey  compare  these 
lines  from  Scott's  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  published  in 
1805. 

If  thou  would'st  view  fair  Melrose  aright, 

Go  visit  it  by  the  pale  moonlight, 

For  the  gay  beams  of  lightsome  day 

Gild  but  to  flout  the  ruins  gray. 

When  the  broken  arches  are  black  in  night, 

And  each  shafted  oriel  glimmers  white; 

When  the  cold  light's  uncertain  shower 

Streams  on  the  ruined  central  tower; 

When  buttress  and  buttress  alternately 

Seem  framed  of  ebon  and  ivory; 

When  silver  edges  the  imagery, 

And  the  scrolls  that  teach  thee  to  live  and  die; 

When  distant  Tweed  is  heard  to  rave, 

And  the  owlet  to  hoot  o'er  the  dead  man's  grave, 

Then  go  —  but  go  alone  the  while  — 

Then  view  St.  David's  ruined  pile; 

And,  home  returning,  soothly  swear 

Was  never  scene  so  sad  and  fair. 

Irving,  by  echoing  the  diction  of  the  well-known  poem, 
prophesies  a  future  for  Westminster  like  the  fate  of  Mel- 
rose  —  utter  ruin.  Is  this  in  harmony  with  the  moral  thought 
and  the  tone  of  the  Sketch*!  (See  II  above.) 

V.  Irving's  work  is  sometimes  compared  to  that  of  the 
English  essayist,  Addison,  who  lived  about  a  century  earlier 
than  Irving.    Addison  has  an  essay  called  Thoughts  in  West 
minster  Abbey.     Read  it  carefully  (Appendix  III).     Has  it 
the  same  tone  as  Irving's  SketM     Is  Addison 's  unity  of 
tone  as  good  as  Irving's?    Wliich  of  his  paragraphs  are  best? 
Which   essay  is  the  finer  production  of  the  imagination? 
Which  writer  was  more  under  the  spell  of  the  great  Abbey? 


WASHINGTON  IRVING  107 

The  study  of  Irving  here  suggested  is  of  a  purely  literary  charac 
ter.  The  Sketches  furnish  excellent  material  for  the  composition 
class  also,  as  models  for  the  study  of  paragraph  structure,  of  sen 
tence  form,  of  coherence,  and  of  outlining,  or  the  logical  develop 
ment  of  the  whole  composition. 


CHAPTER  XII 
WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life,  2  Vol.,  by  Parke  Godwin;  New  York,  1883. 
Life,  by  David  J.  Hill;  New  York,  1879. 
Life,  by  John  Bigelow;  Boston,  1890. 
Life,  by  Wm.  A.  Bradley;  New  York,  1905. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

The  Yellow  Violet,  To  the  Fringed  Gentian,  Green  River,  June,  Au 
tumn  Woods,  The  Death  of  the  Flowers,  The  Gladness  of  Nature,  The 
Evening  Wind,  The  Snow-shower,  Robert  of  Lincoln,  The  Planting  of 
the  Apple-tree,  The  Prairies,  a  Lifetime. 

The  Past,  The  Poet,  O  Fairest  of  the  Rural  Maids  (written  to  the 
lady  who  became  his  wife;  compare  with  Wordsworth's  Three  years 
she  grew,  as  expressing  the  educating  power  of  Nature),  The  May  Sun 
Sheds  an  Amber  Light  (Godwin  II,  31). 

The  Green  Mountain  Boys,  Song  of  Marion's  Men,  Oh!  Mother  of  a 
Mighty  Race,  The  Death  of  Lincoln. 

See  also  Appendix  I,  titles  25  to  27  inclusive. 

To  A  WATERFOWL 

I.  This  poem  is  an  apostrophe  to  a  flying  bird,  and  an 
expression  of  the  moral  thought  it  brings  the  poet.  Seeing 
the  dark  figure  outlined  against  the  glowing  evening  sky,  he 
reflects  that  the  Power  which  guides  the  bird  safely  through 
its  journey  will  lead  him  also  safely  through  life. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  poem  was  composed 
give  it  special  significance.  Bryant  was  about  to  begin  his 

108 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  109 

career  as  a  young  lawyer.  He  felt,  as  every  young  man  must 
feel  when  he  takes  his  first  independent  step  in  life,  an 
intense  loneliness  and  a  great  anxiety  for  the  future.  The 
following  paragraph  is  quoted  from  Godwin  I,  143,  144.* 

How  was  he  to  live  until  success  should  come?  There  was,  in  fact, 
no  alternative  for  him  but  to  begin  in  some  small  country  village,  where, 
if  the  prospects  of  practice  were  not  very  alluring,  the  cost  of  subsistence 
at  least  might  be  managed.  On  the  opposite  hillside  from  Cummington, 
about  seven  miles  distant,  and  to  be  seen  from  his  father's  residence, 
was  a  hamlet  called  Plainfield,  whither  he  resolved  to  go  to  try  his 
fortune.  —  On  the  15th  of  December  [1815]  he  went  over  to  the  place 
to  make  the  necessary  inquiries.  He  says  in  a  letter  that  he  felt,  as  he 
walked  up  the  hills,  very  forlorn  and  desolate  indeed,  not  knowing  what 
was  to  become  of  him  in  the  big  world,  which  grew  bigger  as  he  ascended, 
and  yet  darker  with  the  coming  on  of  night.  The  sun  had  already  set, 
leaving  behind  it  one  of  those  brilliant  seas  of  chrysolite  and  opal  which 
often  flood  the  New  England  skies;  and,  while  he  was  looking  upon  the 
rosy  splendor  with  rapt  admiration,  a  solitary  bird  made  wing  along 
the  illuminated  horizon.  He  watched  the  lone  wanderer  until  it  was 
lost  in  the  distance,  asking  himself  whither  it  had  come  and  to  what  far 
home  it  was  flying.  When  he  went  to  the  house  where  he  was  to  stop 
for  the  night,  his  mind  was  still  full  of  what  he  had  seen  and  felt,  and 
he  wrote  those  lines  as  imperishable  as  our  language,  'The  Waterfowl.' 
The  solemn  tone  in  which  they  conclude,  and  which  by  some  critics  has 
been  thought  too  moralizing,  —  was  as  much  a  part  of  the  scene  as  the 
flight  of  the  bird  itself,  which  spoke  not  alone  to  his  eye,  but  to  his  soul. 
To  have  omitted  that  grand  expression  of  faith  and  hope  in  a  divine 
guidance  would  have  been  to  violate  the  entire  truth  of  the  vision. 

II.  The  picture  is  described  in  the  first  two  stanzas. 
Study  it  word  by  word,  bringing  together  the  color  words 
that  describe  the  splendor  of  the  sky,  and  the  words  that 
speak  of  the  one  dark  spot  against  it.  Is  the  bird  flying 

*  Quotations  from  Parke  Godwin's  Life  are  made  by  permission  of 
Messrs.  D.  Appleton  and  Company. 


110         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

high  or  low?  If  you  were  an  illustrator  exactly  what  picture 
would  you  make  for  this  poem? 

In  connection  with  the  seventh  line,  read  the  following 
extract  from  a  letter  from  Bryant  to  his  publisher,  who  has 
objected  to  a  change  in  wording.  See  Godwin  II,  288,  289. 

In  regard  to  the  change  made  in  the  Waterfowl  in  which  the  line 
now  stands 

As  darkly  seen  against  the  crimson  sky, 
instead  of 

As  darkly  painted  on  the  crimson  sky, 

please  read  what  I  have  to  say  in  excuse.  I  was  never  satisfied  with 
the  word  painted  because  the  next  line  is 

Thy  figure  floats  along. 

Now,  from  a  very  early  period  —  I  am  not  sure  that  it  was  not  from 
the  very  time  that  I  wrote  the  poem  —  there  seemed  to  me  an  incon 
gruity  between  the  idea  of  a  figure  painted  on  the  sky,  and  a  figure 
moving,  'floating/  across  its  surface.  If  the  figure  were  painted,  then 
it  would  be  fixed.  The  incongruity  distressed  me,  and  I  could  not  be 
easy  till  I  had  made  the  change.  I  preferred  a  plain,  prosaic  expression 
to  a  picturesque  one  that  seemed  to  me  false.  Painted  expresses  well 
the  depth  and  strength  of  color  which  fixed  my  attention  when  I  saw 
the  bird  —  but  it  contradicts  the  motion  of  the  winds  and  the  progress 
of  the  bird  through  the  air. 

Do  you  agree  with  the  poet  or  with  the  publisher? 
III.  Study  the  style  of  the  poem  with  respect  to  the  follow 
ing  points: — 

1.  Diction:   poetic   words,    epithets,   suggestiveness   and 

connotation  of  the  words  chosen. 

2.  Sentence-structure:  inversion,  periodic  form. 

3.  Figures:  apostrophe,  personification,  metaphor. 

Do  not  make  lists  merely,  but  try  to  show  how  the  poet's 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  111 

expression  is  related  to  his  thought,  and  how  he  rouses  the 
imagination  of  the  reader.  Was  he  always  as  conscientious 
in  his  art  as  he  was  when  he  substituted  seen  for  painted? 

IV.  Has  Bryant  chosen  meter  and  stanza-structure  suit 
able  to  his  thought?     What  effect  have  the  run-on  lines? 
Are  the  pauses  arranged  well?     Study  the  poem  for  its 
melody  and  harmony.    Bigelow  (p.  43)  tells  us  that  Hartley 
Coleridge,  son  of  the  great  English  poet,  declared  to  his 
college  friend,  Matthew  Arnold,  that  this  was  the  finest 
poem  in  the  English  language,  and  that  he  quoted  with 
special  pleasure  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  lines.     Why 
should  he  have  remembered  and  cited  these  lines  partic 
ularly? 

V.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Do  not  neglect  the  beauty  of 
sound,  which  will  make  more  effective  the  expression  of 
the  thought. 

INSCRIPTION  FOR  THE  ENTRANCE  TO  A  WOOD 

I.  In  this  poem  the  forest  is  regarded  as  the  abode  of  peace 
and  gladness,  to  which  man  may  retire  for  comfort  and 
strength  when  he  is  weary  of  the  sins  and  cares  of  the  world. 
Nature  —  innocent  and  therefore  happy  —  is  contrasted 
with  humanity  —  sinful  and  therefore  miserable.  Make  a  list 
of  the  words  of  content  and  gladness  applied  to  Nature  and 
the  things  of  Nature;  make  another  list  of  words  relating  to 
sin  and  sorrow  applied  to  human  life. 

II.  The  thought  is  serious;  the  style  should,  therefore,  be 
dignified.  Prepare  to  say  how  the  style  enforces  the  effect  of 
the  thought  in  the  following  particulars : — 

1.  in  the  choice  of  adjectives  and  epithets;  in  the  use  of 

specific  words; 

2.  in  the  use  of  figures  of  speech; 


112         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

3.  in  the  use  of  archaic  and  poetic  words; 

4.  in  the  sentence  length  and  structure; 

5.  in  the  allusions; 

6.  in  the  use  of  blank  verse; 

7.  in  the  passages  in  which  sound  harmonizes  with  sense. 

Under  2  speak  particularly  of  apostrophe,  personifica 
tion,  and  metaphors.  Under  4  observe  the  approach  to 
periodic  structure  in  lines  1-6,  and  the  suspense  in  lines 
28-32,  34-36.  Under  5  the  only  possible  difficulty  is  in  lines 
11-15.  The  "  primal  curse/'  when  Adam  and  Eve  were 
driven  out  of  Paradise,  declared  that  the  earth  should  bring 
forth  thorns  and  thistles.  (See  Genesis  3:  18.)  But  this  was 
not  to  punish  the  sinless  earth;  misery  comes  only  to  guilty 
man.  Under  6  speak  of  the  long  phrasing  produced  by 
run-on  lines  and  medial  pauses.  Under  7  note  especially 
lines  34  and  35. 

In  discussing  all  these  points,  avoid  mere  enumeration. 
Your  work  is  to  show  how  these  rhetorical  features,  by  pro 
ducing  a  certain  style,  make  more  effective  the  thought  the 
poet  desires  to  express. 

Does  Bryant  in  his  description  of  the  wood  depend  more 
on  figures  or  on  specific  words  and  epithets? 

III.  From  the  biographies  of  Bryant  find  out  when  and 
under  what  circumstances  this  early  poem  was  written  and 
published,  and  what  name  was  first  given  to  it.    Read  all  the 
criticism  and  comment  you  can  find  on  it.    A  good  comment 
is  to  be  found  in  Godwin's  Bryant,  I,  142:  "  Composed  in  a 
noble  old  forest  that  fronted  his  father's  dwelling-house,  it  is 
an  exquisite  picture  of  the  calm  contentment  he  found  in  the 
woods.     Every  object  ...  is  painted  with  the  minutest 
fidelity,  and  yet  with  an  almost  impassioned  sympathy." 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.     Try  to  express  with  your 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  113 

voice  everything  Bryant  intended  his  readers  to  think  and 
feel. 

A  FOREST  HYMN 

I.  This  poem  was  Bryant's  farewell  to  his  country  life, 
just  before  his  departure  to  New  York  in  1825.  See  Godwin 
I,  214.  Here  he  regards  the  forest  as  a  place  for  the  worship  of 
its  Creator.  Read  the  poem  carefully  with  the  following 
outline : — 

1.  Introduction:   The  forest  worship   of  primitive   man 

might  well  be  practiced  sometimes  by  civilized  man. 

2.  The  Creator  is  still  in  the  forest  he  has  made. 

3.  The  forest  is  an  expression  of  life  triumphant  —  of  the 

creative  power  of  God  still  active. 

4.  The  poet  finds  it  profitable  there  to  meditate  on  the 

judgments  and  mercies  of  God. 

II.  The  poem  is  serious,  meditative,  and  dignified  in 
thought,  and  the  rhetorical  devices  should  be  such  as  will 
help  to  produce  the  effect  of  majesty  and  sublimity.  Discuss 
the  style  under  the  following  topics: — 

1.  Diction:  long  words;  archaic  and  poetic  words;  specific 

words;  epithets;  poetic  compounds. 

2.  Sentences:  length  and  form.    Notice  the  effect  produced 

by  the  periodic  sentences.  Contrast  the  difference  in 
thought  and  effect  shown  by  the  loose  sentence  (lines 
90-99)  and  the  periodic  (lines  101-111.)  Suspended 
structure  produces  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the 
periodic.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  broken  sentence 
in  line  55? 

3.  Figures:   apostrophe,    personification,   metaphor,   sim 

ile  —  lists  of  each.    Notice  the  continued  metaphor  in 


114         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

lines  1, 18, 24, 25, 33-35.  Which  of  the  personifications 
concern  nature?  Which  concern  abstract  notions? 

4.  Meter  and  sound:  effect  of  blank  verse;  use  of  para 
graphs  instead  of  stanzas;  foot;  length  of  line;  run-on 
lines;  retards  and  pauses  (including  spondaic  feet); 
alliteration;  harmony  of  sound  and  thought. 

III.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  Try  to  express  with  your  voice 
all  its  meaning,  beauty,  and  majesty. 

Line  36  alludes  to  the  " fantastic  carvings"  found  in  and  on  the 
mediaeval  cathedrals.  "The  Imp  of  Lincoln"  and  "the  Devil  of 
Notre  Dame"  are  well-known  examples. 

MONUMENT  MOUNTAIN 

I.  Near  Great  Barrington,  Massachusetts,  rises  a  great 
precipice  that  overlooks  the  lovely  valley  of  the  Housatonic 
and  the  Berkshire  Hills.    At  its  southern  extremity  there  was 
once  a  pile  of  stones,  gathered,  tradition  says,  in  honor  of  an 
Indian  woman  who  had  thrown  herself  from  the  precipice. 
The  legend  is  given  in  lines  49ff.  of  the  poem.    Is  the  story 
a  painful  one? 

Relate  the  legend  as  you  learn  it  from  the  poem.  It  is  a 
simple  tale  —  your  language  should  be  as  pure  and  simple  as 
that  of  Bryant.  Let  your  me~thod  of  telling  the  story  show 
your  appreciation  of  Bryant's  diction.  If  he  has  used  any 
epithets  or  other  adjectives,  or  any  figures  that  seem  to  you 
particularly  appropriate,  you  may  use  the  same.  Try  to 
give  to  your  legend  the  same  note  of  patient,  restrained 
pathos  Bryant  has  given  to  his. 

II.  Lines  1-48  are  introductory,  describing  the  precipice 
and  the  view  from  its  summit.    Do  you  think  the  introduc 
tion  is  too  long?    Why  does  Bryant  make  it  so  long?    The 


MONUMENT  MOUNTAIN  PRECIPICE 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  115 

author  apostrophizes  the  visitor  who  woujd  see,  from  the 
summit  of  the  cliff,  the  "lovely"  and  the  "wild."  Go  care 
fully  through  this  introduction,  dividing  into  these  two 
classes  the  objects  and  scenes  mentioned.  Notice  how  your 
attention  is  directed  to  the  various  objects  and  in  various 
directions  by  "here,"  " there,"  "to  the  north,"  "the  western 
side,"  "to  the  east."  Show  particularly  how  the  pictures  of 
the  lovely  and  the  wild  are  made  more  vivid  by  the  use  of 
epithets.  How  much  does  evidence  of  human  life  and  activ 
ity  enter  into  Bryant's  ideal  of  the  "lovely"?  Follow  care 
fully  the  continued  metaphor  in  which  the  poet  uses  terms  of 
architecture  for  the  cliffs  and  rocks  (lines  21,  25,  27,  30,  31, 
36,  48).  Find  examples  of  personification;  what  feeling 
for  nature  does  the  use  of  this  figure  show? 

III.  The  poem  is  written  in  blank  verse.    Discuss  its  meter, 
the  use  of  run-on  lines,  and  the  medial  pauses.    Do  you  find 
any  places  where  the  sound  is  particularly  well  suited  to 
the  thought? 

IV.  Read  the  introduction  (lines  1^8)  aloud.     Try  to 
make  your  auditors  imagine  the  scene  Bryant  has  described. 

THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  FREEDOM 

I.  Read  the  poem  carefully  with  the  following  outline: — 

1.  Introduction,  lines  1-12:  the  forest  is  the  scene  of  the 

poet's  meditation;  its  age  and  undisturbed  growth 
suggest  the  age  and  nature  of  liberty. 

2.  Freedom  is  conceived  under  the  metaphor  of  a  warrior, 

assailed  by  his  foe  with  force:  lines  13-32. 

3.  Freedom  is  coeval  with  the  human  race:  lines  33^7. 

4.  Though   he   will    be   ultimately   victorious,    Freedom 

must  watch  long  against  the  cunning  of  his  foe: 
lines  48-64. 


116         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

5.  Conclusion,  lines  64-70:  the  forest  is  the  resting-place 
for  Freedom  in  the  intervals  of  his  struggle,  it  being 
the  primal  home  and  present  abode  of  liberty. 

II.  Study  the  poem  in  detail. 

Topics  1  and  5.  The  introduction  and  the  conclusion  may 
be  considered  together  rhetorically.  The  former,  particularly, 
describes  the  forest  by  means  of  specific  nouns  and  epithets. 
The  age  of  the  forest  (line  10)  explains  the  descriptive  element 
of  the  conclusion  (lines  66-70). 

Topic  3.  Lines  33-47  may  next  be  considered,  as  standing 
nearer  the  title  of  the  poem  than  the  second  and  fourth  para 
graphs.  Freedom  should  rule  the  human  race  by  right  of 
birth  —  he  is  older  than  usurping  Tyranny,  his  enemy.  He 
began  with  the  beginning  of  the  race,  and  has  gone  with 
the  race  through  its  history.  Lines  34-40  allude  to  the 
pastoral  period  of  our  race's  history.  Pastoral  peoples, 
watching  their  flocks  by  night  (for  darkness  brings  the  wild 
beasts),  have  always  been  astronomers;  and  in  poetry  shep 
herds  are  always  represented  as  playing  on  the  "reed." 
(See  the  story  of  Pan,  god  of  shepherds,  and  the  nymph 
Syrinx.)  Also,  pastoral  peoples  are  obliged  to  fight  the  wild 
beasts  that  would  decimate  their  flocks.  Lines  40-42  refer  to 
the  early  agricultural  period  of  our  race's  history.  Tyranny, 
being  younger,  is,  by  the  law  of  primogeniture,  a  usurper, 
if  he  takes  the  place  of  the  elder.  Does  he  feel  secure  in  his 
wrongfully  obtained  position? 

Topic  2.  (Lines  13-32).  The  whole  of  the  poem  proper  is 
an  apostrophe  to  Freedom.  The  French  emblem  of  Freedom 
is  a  young  girl  in  a  Roman  cap.  The  poet  rejects  this 
metaphor;  he  conceives  Freedom  as  a  warrior,  fighting 
(lines  17-22).  Power  (called  "Tyranny"  in  line  42)  has  at 
tacked  Freedom.  "Thunderbolts"  and  "lightnings"  sug- 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  117 

gest  Zeus,  who  is  regarded  as  a  tyrant  in  the  story  of  Prome 
theus.  Power  makes  Freedom  prisoner,  but  Freedom  escapes 
and  rallies  the  nations  around  his  standard.  The  "  swart  ar 
morers"  are  smiths  (6foc&-smiths),  whose  work  in  early 
times  included  the  making  of  armor.  Throughout  this 
paragraph  Freedom  is  represented  as  struggling  against  the 
force  of  the  enemy  in  warfare  and  battle.  He  may  be  con 
quered  for  a  time,  but  his  immortal  strength  finally  puts  the 
enemy  to  flight. 

Topic  4.  (Lines  48-64).  Here  Freedom  is  represented  as 
fighting  against  the  enemy's  cunning  —  the  weapon  of  the 
weak  and  failing.  Tyranny  sets  traps  and  ambushes,  if 
perchance  he  may  take  Freedom  unawares.  Lines  53-59 
refer  to  pleasures  and  rewards  tyrants,  or  would-be  tyrants, 
have  sometimes  prepared  for  their  slaves.  Roman  history, 
for  example,  tells  how  food  was  distributed  to  the  populace, 
and  how  they  were  entertained  by  spectacles  when  would-be 
tyrants  were  trying  to  gain  power  over  them.  Can  you  give 
from  history  any  other  illustration  for  these  lines?  Lines 
59-64  warn  Freedom  to  be  prepared  for  these  cunning 
attacks  of  his  enemy.  " Tumult"  and  " fraud"  in  line  65  re 
call  the  ideas  of  "force"  (lines  21ff.)  and  "cunning"  (lines 
50ff.). 

III.  Discuss  the  sentence-structure  in  this  poem.     What 
is  the  effect  of  inversion  in  lines  27-28,  34-35,  42-45,  45- 
47? 

IV.  Discuss  the  meter,  and  the  use  of  run-on  lines  and 
pauses. 

V.  What  devices  do  you  find  in  the  poem  for  securing 
melody  and  harmony? 

VI.  Read  the  poem  aloud.     Try  to  bring  out  fully  its 
meaning,  beauty,  and  strength. 


118         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


THANATOPSIS 

I.  When  Bryant  was  a  young  man  of  twenty-three,  his 
father  found  in  his  desk  the  verses  which  now  appear  as 
Thanatopsis,  lines  17-66.    Mr.  Bryant  gave  the  lines  to  his 
friend  Mr.  Phillips,  then  editor  of  The  North  American  Re 
view,  and  they  were  published  in  that  magazine  in  September, 
1817.     They  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  some  five 
or  six  years  earlier.    Lines  1-17  and  66-81  were  added  by 
the  poet  in  his  volume  of  1821.     See  Godwin  I,  97-101, 
148-155. 

II.  The  title  of  the  poem  is  from  the  Greek,  and  means 
"a  vision  of  death."    One  should  read  first  the  original  lines 
(17-66),  which  are  the  core  of  the  present  poem.    The  poet 
conceives  the  earth  as  a  splendid  tomb  for  man,  and  the 
beauties  of  nature  as  decorations  of  that  tomb.     He  med 
itates  on  the  universality  of  death.     This  seems  a  strange 
topic  for  the  meditation  of  a  young  man  of  healthy  mind; 
but  we  know  that  " graveyard  poems"  occupied  a  prominent 
and  honored  place  in  English  literature  of  the  late  eighteenth 
century.    Gray's  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard  is  the 
best  known  of  these  poems.    Another,  which  seems  particu 
larly  to  have  influenced  Bryant,  is  Blair's  Grave.    See  Godwin 
I,  37,  97. 

What  is  this  world? 

What  but  a  spacious  burial-field  unwalled, 
Strewed  with  death's  spoils,  the  spoils  of  animals 
Savage  and  tame,  and  full  of  dead  men's  bones. 
The  very  turf  on  which  we  tread  once  lived, 
And  we  that  live  must  lend  our  carcasses 
To  cover  our  own  offspring;  in  their  turns 
They,  too,  must  cover  theirs. 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  119 

The  thought  of  Blair,  though  infinitely  less  well  expressed, 
is  plainly  that  of  the  young  Bryant,  who  was  doubtless 
familiar  with  the  then  popular  poem  of  the  older  man.  Of 
the  lines  added  later,  1-17  are  of  the  nature  of  an  introduction, 
66-72  are  so  closely  related  to  the  thought  of  the  poem  that 
they  became  really  a  part  of  it,  and  73-81  are  appended  to  at 
tach  a  moral  thought  to  the  poem.  These  lines  can  hardly 
be  called  a  conclusion,  because  they  do  not  grow  necessarily, 
or  even  naturally,  out  of  the  thought  of  the  poem  proper. 

III.  Read  now  the  entire  poem  as  it  stands  at  present, 
consulting  the  following  outline:  — 

1.  Introduction:  Nature  comforts  man  when  the  thought 

of  death  makes  him  gloomy,  telling  him  that :  — 

2.  it  is  true  his  body  will  return  to  earth; 

3.  yet  he  will  thus  become  one  of  the  company  that  in 

cludes  all  the  great,  the  beautiful,  the  good  of  the 
past; 

4.  the  beauties  of  Nature  are  decorations  for  the  tomb  of 

man; 

5.  the  dead  are  everywhere,  and  all  who  are  to  come  will 

ultimately  join  their  number. 

6.  Moral  thought:  So  live  that  you  will  not  be  afraid  to  die. 
Consider  the  thought  of  the  poem  carefully.     This  is 

sometimes  called  a  "pagan  poem."  See  Hill's  Bryant,  214, 
215;  and  Richardson's  History  of  American  Literature,  II,  37. 
Does  Bryant  say  any  more  in  this  poem  than  a  pagan  phil 
osopher  could  have  said? 

IV.  The  thought  of  the  poem  is  serious  and  majestic. 
The  style  should  then  be  dignified  and  stately.    Show  how 
the  style  becomes  the  thought  in  the  following  particu 
lars  :  — 

1.  Diction:  length  of  words;  use  of  specific  words;  use  of 


120         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

words  from  the  poetic  vocabulary  (archaic  words, 
epithets,  poetic  compounds);  words  not  adjectives 
used  for  descriptive  power. 

2.  Sentences:  length;  inversion  and  suspension;  use  of 

series;  periodic  structure. 

3.  Figures:  apostrophe;  personification;  simile;  metaphor. 

4.  Meter:  blank  verse;  foot;  length  of  line  and  placing 

of  pauses. 

5.  Melody  and  harmony:  alliteration;  assonance;  dignity 

of  movement;  sonorous  quality  of  words  used. 

Even  if  you  do  not  consider  the  subject  a  profitable  one 
for  meditation,  you  cannot  but  be  impressed  with  the  sublime 
manner  in  which  Bryant  discusses  it.  His  fine  poetry  awakes 
the  imagination,  brings  to  the  mind  magnificent  pictures, 
and  makes  the  subject  almost  attractive. 

V.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  present  form  of  the 
poem  with  its  first  form.  Has  the  poet  improved  the  following 
early  lines? 

Line  40.  The  venerable  woods  —  the  floods  that  move 
In  majesty  —  and  the  complaining  brooks, 
That  wind  among  the  meads  and  make  them  green, 
Are  but  the  solemn  decorations  all 

Line  47.  Are  glowing  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death. 

Line  50.  Take  the  wings 

Of  morning  —  and  the  Barcan  desert  pierce  — 
Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 
That  veil  Oregon,  where  he  hears  no  sound 

Line  58.  So  shalt  thou  rest  —  and  what  if  thou  shalt  fall 
Unnoticed  by  the  living  —  and  no  friend 
Take  note  of  thy  departure?    Thousands  more 
Will  share  thy  destiny.  —  The  tittering  world 
Dance  to  the  grave.    The  busy  brood  of  care 
Plod  on,  and  each  one  chases  as  before 
His  favorite  phantom.  — 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  121 

Bryant  once  wished  to  change  line  51  to  "traverse  the  Bar- 
can  desert/7  but  his  editor  insisted  on  "  pierce."  Why?  See 
Godwin  I,  176  and  II,  288. 

VI.  Discuss  the  poet's  feeling  for  nature  as  shown  in  this 
poem. 

VII.  Compare  Thanatopsis  with  June  in  subject  matter 
and  style.    How  is  the  difference  in  effect  produced? 

VIII.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Try  to  show  by  your  reading 
what  you  have  learned  about  the  sustained  majesty  of  its 
style. 

With  line  50  compare  Psalms  139:9.  "If  I  take  the  wings  of 
morning,  and  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  sea."  Bryant 
tells  us  to  travel  in  imagination  with  the  speed  of  morning  light 
and  the  comprehensiveness  of  advancing  day  from  the  far  east 
(the  Barcan  desert  in  Africa)  to  the  western  Oregon  (Columbia 
River);  even  in  these  lonely  places,  these  "uttermost  parts,"  the 
dead  are  found.  The  phraseology  which  the  Psalmist  uses  to  ex 
press  the  omnipresence  of  God,  the  poet  adopts  to  express  the 
omnipresence  of  Death. 

THE  FLOOD  OF  YEARS 

I.  Thanatopsis  was  the  young  Bryant's  "vision  of  death." 
When  the  poet  was  eighty-two  years  old  (in  1876),  he  wrote 
another  poem  on  the  universality  of  death,  and  it  is  interest 
ing  to  observe  that  he  adds  to  his  picture  of  death  the  an 
ticipation  of  a  life  beyond;  he  does  not  stop  at  the  grave 
now,  as  he  did  in  Thanatopsis.     And  he  expresses  in  this 
later  poem  the  sympathy  with  human  sorrow  that  would 
naturally  grow  out  of  the  experiences  of  life. 
Read  the  poem  carefully,  with  this  outline :  — 
1.  The  work  of  the  Flood  in  the  " Life  that  is"  —  devasta 
tion:  lines  1-122. 


122         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

a.  It  bears  away' all  persons  and  all  things: 

(1)  Men  of  every  age  and  class, 

(2)  The  cities  and  nations  of  earth  —  illustrations. 

b.  A  look  at  the  Past  shows  nothing  but  the  devastation 

of  the  Flood,  and  the  sorrow  that  has  accompanied 
loss  and  disappointment. 

c.  The  earthly  future,  "where  the  Flood  must  pass," 

mingles  hope  and  fear;  finally  the  Flood  passes  the 
dark  barrier  of  Death,  "  where  the  life  to  come 
touches  the  life  that  is." 

2.  The  work  of  the  Flood  in  the  "  Life  to  come  "  —  restora 
tion:  lines  122-152. 

a.  All  that  have   been   swept   away  re-appear:   lines 

125ff. 

b.  And  are  carried  into  realms  of  peace  and  beauty: 

lines  134ff., 

c.  Where  friends  are  united:  lines  140ff., 

d.  And  there  is  eternal  happiness:  lines  143ff. 

II.  The  expression  of  the  thought  we  find  in  this  poem 
should  naturally  be  dignified  and  solemn.  As  the  basis 
of  the  whole,  Bryant  uses  a  majestic  metaphor,  compar 
ing  time  to  an  everlasting  and  all-powerful  flood.  The 
figure  has  probably  occurred  to  many  men  besides  Bryant. 
Who  can  sit  quietly  and  thoughtfully  on  the  bank  of  a  stream, 
watching  its  never-ending  current  flow  past  him,  without 
being  impressed  by  its  continuance  and  irresistibility;  without 
saying  to  himself,  "These  bits  of  wood  and  other  debris  are 
borne  along  on  this  river  as  we  human  beings  are  borne  on 
the  stream  of  time?"  Go  through  Bryant's  poem  carefully, 
and  list  all  the  words  that  belong  to  his  fundamental  met 
aphor.  You  will  find  that  all  those  before  line  122  picture 
the  flood  as  rough,  stormy,  violent,  devastating.  Those 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT    '  123 

after  line  122  picture  the  flood  as  calm,  peaceful,  beneficent. 
Refer  again  to  the  outline,  and  explain  why  this  is  so. 

1.  Find  all  the  other  figures  used  in  the  poem,  and  explain 

them  accurately. 

2.  Discuss  the  use  of  specific  words   (verbs  as  well  as 

nouns)  >  of  epithets,  of  poetic  compounds,  to  make 
vivid  the  description  of  the  path  of  the  Flood  in  the 
present  life  and  in  the  life  to  come.  Observe  contrasts, 
as  "Emperor"  and  "felon,"  etc.  Notice  especially 
such  words  as  "stricken"  (line  43)  and  "overpays" 
(line  145). 

3.  The  sentences  are  rather  long,  and,  since  the  poem  con 

tains  much  enumeration,  the  sentences  contain  many 
series  of  phrases  and  some  balance. 

4.  Discuss  the  meter.    The  rhythm  is  somewhat  like  that 

of  a  chant;  each  phrase  should  be  read  as  a  unit, 
smoothly,  monotonously  for  the  most  part,  and  rather 
quickly.  In  which  part  are  there  the  most  run-on 
lines?  In  which  is  the  phrasing  more  long  and  sweep 
ing?  Why? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  onomatopoetic  words  used  in  the  poem. 

Discuss  the  harmony  of  sound  and  meaning.    Notice 
all  prominent  cases  of  alliteration.    In  reading,  you 
should  emphasize  the  explosives  before  line  122  and 
the  liquids  and  spirants  after  line  122;  why? 
III.  Read  the  poem  aloud.     Keep  in  mind  the  powerful 
movement  of  a  mighty  stream:  in  the  first  division  of  the 
poem,  dark,  sweeping,  and  all-destructive;  in  the  last  section 
not  less  mighty,  but  at  the  same  time  calm  and  gracious  in  its 
course. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
EDGAR  ALLAN  POE 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life,  by  George  E.  Woodberry;  Boston,  1885. 

Life  and  Letters,  by  James  A.  Harrison;  New  York,  1902. 

Life,  by  Eugene  L.  Didier;  New  York,  1879. 

The  Mind  and  Art  of  Foe's  Poetry,  by  J.  P.  Fruit;  New  York.  1899. 

A  Critical  Study  of  Poe,  by  Arthur  Ransome;  New  York,  1910 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Israfel,  To  Helen,  The  City  in  the  Sea,  Ulalume. 
See  also  Appendix  I,  titles  28  to  32  inclusive. 

THE  BELLS 

I.  The  excellence  of  this  poem  is  in  melody  and  harmony, 
not  in  profundity  of  thought.    The  poem  is  made  up  of  four 
stanzas  of  unequal  length,  each  describing  the  sound  of  one 
kind  of  bell.    The  author's  purpose  is  to  recall  to  the  reader's 
imagination  the  sounds  characteristic  of  various  bells,  and 
to  inspire  in  him  the  emotion  appropriate  in  each  case.    The 
first  three  lines  of  each  stanza  state  its  theme  and  set  its 
tone-color;  the  last  line  summarizes  the  effect  of  the  stanza. 

II.  The  first  stanza  describes  the  sound  of  sleigh-bells,  here 
conceived  as  silver  bells,  because  of  their  " silvery,"  tinkling 
music.     The  occasion  is  gay;  the  movement  is  rapid,  the 
sounds  in  the  stanza  are  light  and  jingling.    The  predominant 
vowels  are  the  light  vowels  e  and  i,  made  in  the  front  of  the 

124 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  125 

mouth,  and  these  give  the  tone-color  to  the  stanza.  The 
great  number  of  liquid  and  spirant  consonants  make  the 
combinations  smooth  and  flowing,  in  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  the  occasion;  some  explosives  are  used  for  imitative 
effects.  The  melody  is  aided  by  the  alliteration  of  m  (line  3), 
s  (line  6),  r  (line  10),  and  by  the  assonance  of  i  (line  14)  and 
i  (line  4).  The  words  tinkle,  jingling,  and  tintinnabulation 
are  onomatopoetic. 

III.  The  second  stanza  tells  of  wedding-bells.     As   the 
occasion  is  more  formal  and  significant  than  that  alluded  to 
in  stanza  one,  the  bells  are  made  of  finer  material  and  their 
music  is  less  light.    The  tone-color  of  the  stanza  is  richer  and 
deeper,  and  is  produced  by  such  vowrels  as  are  found  in 
golden,    world,    happiness,    harmony,    balmy,    molten-golden, 
notes,  tune,  etc.,  these  vowels  having  more  resonance  than 
the  e  and  i  of  stanza  one.     The  melody  is  still  carried  on 
smoothly  by  an  abundance  of  liquids  and  spirants.    Allitera 
tion  of  h  (line  17)  and  s  (line  25),  and  assonance  of  d  (line  20), 
of  i  (line  22)  of  u  (line  23)  and  of  u  (line  26)  add  to  the  music. 
Gush  and  chiming  are  onomatopoetic. 

IV.  The  third  stanza  strikes  a  new  note  at  once  in  the 
harsh  word  brazen,  which  gives  the  keynote  for  the  tone- 
color  of  the  stanza,   as  silver  suggests  gay  lightness  and 
golden  suggests  richness  of  sound  in  the  two  earlier  stanzas. 
The  use  of  tale  instead  of  world  in  the  third  line  is  sig 
nificant   in   the  tone-scheme   of   the   stanza.      The   harsh 
words  scream  (line  40),  shriek  (line  42),  clang,  clash,  roar 
(line  54),   twanging   (line  58),   clanging   (line   59),  jangling 
(line  62),  wrangling  (line  63),  clamor  (line  69)  are  onomato 
poetic,  and  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the 
stanza.    Many  of  them  are  emphasized  by  repetition.    Many 
of  the  consonants  are  explosives,  and  this  gives  abruptness  to 


126         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  movement.  With  two  exceptions  (s  in  line  65  and  /  in 
line  45)  those  emphasized  by  alliteration  are  explosives: 
t  (lines  37,  52),  b  (line  36),  d  (line  47),  c  (lines  54,  69).  Asso 
nance  of  a  in  line  69  adds  to  the  vocalic  effect.  Lines  60  and 
64  imitate  the  rise  and  fall  of  flames.  Abrupt  pauses  within 
the  short  lines  help  to  produce  the  irregularity  of  meter 
desired  in  this  description  of  the  jangling  fire-bells. 

V.  The  fourth  stanza  (lines  70-92),  speaking  of  the  stern, 
heavy,  tolling,  deep-toned  iron  bells,  has  a  slow,  solemn 
melody.    The  tone-color  is  made  by  long,  deep  vowels  formed 
far  back  in  the  mouth,  so  that  they  use  the  resonance  cavities 
of  the  head;  especially  by  d.    Liquid  consonants  make  the 
melody  smooth;  alliteration  of  m  (lines  75,  83)  and  of  r 
(lines  97,  101)  emphasizes  the  liquids.     Assonance  of  and 
frequent  rime  on  d  emphasize  that  sound.    Groan  is  onomat- 
opoetic.     Toll,  onomatopoetic,  is  emphasized  by  assonance, 
repetition,  and  rime.    The  solemnity  of  the  first  part  of  the 
stanza  is  relieved  by  the  brighter  lines  93-101,  describing  the 
merry,  fantastic  sprite  of  the  steeple.     Here  are  found  the 
light,  front  vowels  e  and  i,  which  give  the  tone-color  of  stanza 
one.    Lines  102-108  come  gradually  back  to  the  tone-color  of 
stanza  four;  and  the  stanza  ends  with  the  effect  of  the  iron 
bells.    The  last  half  of  the  last  stanza,  therefore,  gathers  up 
and  summarizes  the  diction  and  the  sound  effects  of  the  four 
stanzas,  and  thus  unifies  the  entire  poem. 

VI.  One  of  the  remarkable  devices  of  the  poem  is  the 
repetition  of  the  word  bells,  in  imitation  of  the  sound  of 
the  bell.    The  word,  like  the  stroke  of  a  bell,  begins  with  a 
strong  accent  and  dies  away  gradually;  thus  >.     This  is 
true  also  of  the  words  that  rime  with  bells  —  tells,  swells, 
dwells,  cells,  knells,  wells,  etc.     It  is  also  true  of  the  word 
time,    ( > )    repeated    for    imitative    effect   in   lines   9,    96, 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  127 

etc.  The  words  toll  —  tolling  and  their  rimes  are  imita 
tive  in  the  same  way,  and  more  deliberate  and  resonant. 
These  imitative  series  should  be  read  so  as  to  bring  out  more 
fully  the  effect  of  each  stanza,  the  movement  and  melody 
of  the  series  varying  with  the  spirit  of  the  stanza.  Lines  12 
and  13  should  suggest  the  jingle  of  the  merry  sleigh-bells; 
lines  32-34,  the  glad  peal  of  the  wedding-bells;  lines  65-68, 
the  harsh,  clanging  fire-bells;  lines  108-112,  the  heavy,  slow, 
funeral-bells.  The  resonant  ring  of  the  bell  is  also  in  the 
frequently  occurring  syllable  ing,  which  should  be  pronounced 
fully  and  clearly  every  time  it  .occurs. 

Some  long  words,  rather  unusual  in  poetry,  are  employed 
with  excellent  melodic  effect:  tintinnabulation,  voluminously, 
palpitating,  for  example.  Two  of  these  contain  a  consonant 
repetition  similar  in  effect  to  alliteration. 

VII.  The  meter  is  trochaic,  as  befits  the  animated  char 
acter  of  the  poem.  It  is  natural  to  accent  the  stressed  syl 
lable  strongly  here,  and  so  bring  out  the  metrical  structure, 
and  imitate  the  striking  of  a  bell.  This  might  be  bad, 
because  distracting,  in  a  poem  that  emphasized  thought; 
but  it  is  good  in  one  that  emphasizes  sound  and  music.  The 
lines  are  irregular  in  length,  varying  from  monometer  to 
octameter.  The  majority  are  trimeter  and  tetrameter. 
The  first  three  lines  and  the  last  three  are  of  the  same  form 
in  all  the  stanzas,  and  this  produces  a  slight  suggestion  of 
stanza-structure.  In  these  lines  the  significant  words  are 
joined  and  emphasized  by  alliteration,  assonance,  or  internal 
rime.  Adjacent  lines  usually  rime.  This  frequent  rime, 
especially  on  the  word  bell,  helps  much  in  the  imitative 
effect  of  the  poem,  as  well  as  in  the  melody.  Internal  rimes  in 
lines  31,  35,  113  give  an  effect  similar  to  the  riming  of  short 
lines.  Feminine  rime  is  found  in  tinkle  —  sprinkle  —  twinkle, 


128         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

twanging  —  clanging,  jangling  —  wrangling,  people  —  steeple} 
woman  —  human  (imperfect). 

VIII.  Practice  reading  the  poem.    Try  to  bring  out  fully 
the  tone-color  and  the  imitative  effects. 

THE  RAVEN 

I.  Read  the  poem  through  for  its  story  and  its  tone.    Tell 
the  story  in  your  own  words.    What  is  the  tone  of  the  poem? 

II.  Study  the  rhetorical  devices  that  produce  the  sound 
effects. 

1.  Meter:  Number  of  lines  in  stanza;  length  of  lines;  foot; 

lines  2,  4,  5,  6  end  with  a  rest. 

2.  Rime:  The  end  rime  is  abcbbb;  b  in  every  stanza  is  or;  the 

constant  recurrence  of  this  most  resonant  vowel  and 
most  musical  liquid  has  much  to  do  with  the  effect 
of  the  poem.  Internal  feminine  rime  in  lines  1  and 
3  of  each  stanza  breaks  in  two  these  long  lines.  In 
the  middle  of  line  4  there  is,  in  most  stanzas,  a  femi 
nine  rime  with  the  middle  of  line  3.  Line  14  also  has 
internal  feminine  rime. 

3.  Other  musical  devices:  Discuss  the  amount,  character, 

and  effect  of  alliteration.  There  is  not  much  asso 
nance,  because  there  is  so  much  rime.  Repetitions 
emphasize  the  emotional  effect;  line  5  of  each  stanza 
repeats  more  or  less  line  4;  other  repetitions  occur  in 
lines  3,  82,  83,  88,  102.  Find  all  the  examples  of 
onomatopcea.. 

What  sound  persists  as  an  undertone  through  the  whole 
poem?  By  what  devices  is  it  kept  up?  What  is  its 
emotional  effect? 

III.  In  a  critical  essay  called  The  Philosophy  of  Composition 
Poe  has  explained  his  use  of  rhetorical  devices  in  this  poem. 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  129 

Read  the  essay  carefully.  Then  read  the  poem  again,  this 
time  aloud,  in  order  to  feel  the  effect  of  its  music.  Does  the 
poem  produce  on  you  the  effect  intended  by  the  writer? 
Does  it  seem  to  you  in  the  least  mechanical  and  artificial  in 
the  use  of  rhetorical  devices?  Do  you  think  the  lover  felt 
profound  grief  for  the  death  of  the  lady? 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  Bring  out  clearly  the  sound 
of  or  every  time  it  occurs;  let  it  be  heard  as  a  recurrent  minor 
note  beneath  the  ripple  of  meter,  alliteration,  and  rime. 

If  the  student  wishes  to  consult  authorities  other  than  Poe  him 
self  (often  a  doubtful  authority)  concerning  the  origin  of  this  poem, 
he  may  turn  to  pages  156  to  159  of  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Stedman- 
Woodberry  edition  of  Poe's  works.  See  also  the  Preface  to  the  same 
volume,  pages  xxxi,  xxxii.  Critics  have  been  very  industrious  in 
attempting  to  prove  that  Poe  plagiarized  the  poem  from  various 
obscure  contemporaries,  possibly  because  Poe  was  so  ready  to  cry 
"Plagiarist"  at  others,  especially  at  Longfellow.  The  most  in 
teresting  borrowings  of  Poe  in  The  Raven  are  those  from  Coleridge 
and  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning.  For  his  alleged  indebted 
ness  to  Coleridge,  see  volume  six  of  the  Stedman-Woodberry  edition, 
A  Reply  to  Outis.  Stedman  points  out  the  general  similarity  be 
tween  The  Raven  and  Mrs.  Browning's  Lady  Geraldine's  Courtship 
in  meter,  stanza,  and  diction,  and  the  special  likeness  between  Poe's 
third  stanza  and  Mrs.  Browning's  fourth.  Poe  greatly  admired 
Mrs.  Browning  (then  Miss  Barrett),  and  dedicated  to  her  The 
Raven  and  Other  Poems. 

Many  of  Poe's  best  known  poems  appeared  in  several  forms. 
When  he  had  to  furnish  a  poem  to  a  magazine,  he  apparently  pre 
ferred  to  re-write  an  old  one,  rather  than  to  compose  one  altogether 
new.  Persons  interested  in  the  changes,  improvements,  and  vari 
ant  readings  will  find  them  collected  in  the  notes  to  the  tenth  volume 
of  the  Stedman-Woodberry  edition.  See  also  Henry  E.  Legler's 
Poe's  Raven:  Its  Origin  and  Genesis. 


130         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

THE  FALL  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  USHER 

I.  In  his  essay  on  Short  Story  Writing  Poe  says:  — 

A  skillful  literary  artist  has  constructed  a  tale.  If  wise,  he  has 
not  fashioned  his  thoughts  to  accommodate  his  incidents;  but  having 
conceived  with  deliberate  care,  a  certain  unique  or  single  effect  to  be 
wrought  out,  he  then  invents  such  incidents  —  he  then  combines 
such  events  as  may  best  aid  him  in  establishing  this  preconceived  effect. 
If  his  very  initial  sentence  tend  not  to  the  outbringing  of  this  effect,  then 
he  has  failed  in  his  first  step.  In  the  whole  composition  there  should  be 
no  word  written  of  which  the  tendency,  direct  or  indirect,  is  not  to  the 
one  pre-established  design. 

Read  carefully  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,  and  decide 
what  effect  Poe  wishes  to  produce  with  this  tale,  whose 
motifs  are  insanity  and  premature  burial. 

You  will  observe  that  Poe  uses  the  word  house  in  the 
two  senses:  the  "building"  and  the  "family"  (paragraph  3). 
Explain  the  meaning  of  the  title,  using  house  in  the  second 
sense.  Does  Poe  intend  the  word  to  be  understood  in  the 
title  in  both  senses? 

II.  The  setting  of  the  story  (paragraphs  1-7) . 

The  guest  approaches  the  house,  which  is  described  as  he 
f eels §  and  sees  it.  He  describes  it  without  and  within.  Show 
how  this  description  helps  to  produce,  from  the  opening 
phrase  of  the  tale,  the  effect  which  the  author  has  in  view. 
Note  particularly  the  effect  produced  by  the  adjectives. 
Could  a  story  be  a  pleasant  one  with  such  a  beginning? 
Could  anything  agreeable  happen  in  such  surroundings? 
Certain  expressions  are  particularly  suggestive;  as  "vacant, 
eye-like  windows,"  which  reminds  the  reader  of  the  "va 
cant"  eye  of  a  person  of  infirm  mind.  The  occasion  of  the 
visit,  too,  is  not  pleasant  (paragraph  2).  In  this  introduction, 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  131 

note  particularly  the  vivid  and  prophetic  image  of  the  house 
in  the  tarn  (paragraph  1),  and  the  decayed  condition  of  the 
old  building  (paragraph  5,  fissure). 

III.  Characterization. 

Besides  Roderick  Usher,  few  persons  are  mentioned  in  the 
tale:  the  servants,  the  guest  ("I'7),  the  doctor,  the  sister. 
The  servants  (paragraph  6)  are  mere  figures.  The  guest  is 
the  person  by  whom  the  reader  lives  through  this  horrible 
experience;  he  is  any  spectator  of  normal  mind  —  the  reader 
himself.  The  doctor  is  introduced  merely  to  account  for 
keeping  the  body  in  the  house  (paragraphs  6,  21).  The 
sister  appears  only  once  (paragraph  13)  to  the  "  guest " 
(i.  e.,  to  the  reader)  before  her  entrance  in  the  hideous  climax, 
and  then  as  a  ghostly  apparition;  she  is  significant  not  as  a 
character  but  as  an  occasion  for  the  events  of  the  tale. 

The  real  interest  centers  about  Roderick  Usher.  His 
disposition  is  first  described  in  the  French  couplet  with  which 
the  tale  opens: 

His  heart  is  a  lute  suspended; 

As  soon  as  one  touches  it,  it  gives  forth  sound. 

His  nervous  and  unbalanced  mental  condition,  the  extreme 
of  the  delicate  sensibility  described  in  the  couplet,  was  the 
occasion  of  his  friend's  visit  (paragraph  2).  His  whole 
heredity  (paragraph  3)  tended  toward  an  intellectual  and  ar 
tistic  sensitiveness  that  weakened,  rather  than  strengthened, 
the  body  and  the  character.  The  young  man's  person  is 
described  (paragraph  8)  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  him  seem 
uncanny,  stress  being  put  on  the  expression  rather  than  on 
the  features  themselves.  The  analysis  of  his  mind  is  given 
in  paragraphs  9-20.  Observe  the  condition  of  his  nerves, 
the  unnatural  acuteness  of  his  senses,  his  struggle  with  Fear; 


132         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  character  of  his  music  and  painting,  his  strange  belief, 
his  taste  in  reading.  His  composition  of  The  Haunted  Palace 
is  significant,  showing  his  consciousness  of  "the  tottering  of 
his  lofty  reason  upon  her  throne."  The  song  is  allegorical, 
depicting  the  fall  of  the  "Monarch  Thought."  The  descrip 
tion  of  the  intelligent  head,  face,  and  voice  occurs  in  stanzas 
II-IV;  that  of  the  insane  face  and  expression  in  stanzas 
V,  VI.  Altogether,  Roderick  Usher  inspires  in  his  friend 
(i.  e.}  the.  reader)  strange,  vague  terrors.  The  influence  of 
the  sister's  death  on  this  wavering  mind  is  stated  in  para 
graphs  21-24. 

IV.  The  author  has  now  made  clear  a  certain  situation, 
on  which  he  wishes  to  base  his  narrative.     A  young  man, 
predisposed  to  insanity,  and  already  somewhat  unbalanced, 
is  completely  unnerved  by  the  death  of  his  twin  sister,  to 
whom  he  was  'especially  attached,  with  whom  he  had  a 
peculiarly  sympathetic  affinity,  and  whose  body  is  tem 
porarily  laid  in  the  vault  of  the  house. 

V.  The  narrative   of   the   night   of    horror    (paragraphs 
25-41). 

1.  Introductory  (paragraph  25):  tempest;  nervousness  of 

guest ;  mysterious  sounds.  Show  why  this  preliminary 
paragraph  must  begin  a  blood-curdling  tale. 

2.  The  entrance  of  Usher  (paragraphs  26-29) :  his  condi 

tion;  the  tempest. 

3.  The  name  of  the  book  chosen  for  reading  is  significant 

(paragraph  30) .  Explain  the  use,  in  working  up  to  the 
climax,  of  quotations  from  the  book  read  by  the  guest. 
Compare  each  quotation  with  the  description  of  the 
sound  that  immediately  followed  it.  Observe  the 
progressive  nervousness  and  horror  of  the  guest,  and 
the  increasing  excitement  of  Usher. 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  133 

The  use  of  sound  in  working  up  to  the  climax  of  this 
story  is  particularly  good  because  Usher  has  already 
been  described  as  peculiarly  sensitive  to  sounds. 
Notice  the  progressive  clearness  of  the  sounds  that 
proceed  from  the  "  distant  part  of  the  house."  Do 
they  tell  you  what  is  taking  place? 
4.  Climax:  appearance  of  sister;  terrified  flight  of  guest; 

death  of  Usher  and  his  sister;  destruction  of  house. 
VI.  The  motifs  of  this  tale  are  the  two  most  hideous  an 
author  could  choose  —  insanity  and  premature  burial.  One 
dislikes  to  dwell  on  such  topics.  But  it  would  be  hard  to 
find  another  story  with  such  perfect  unity  of  tone  as  has  this 
one.  Poe  has  followed  without  a  fault  his  own  teaching: 
"In  the  whole  composition  there  should  be  no  word  written 
of  which  the  tendency,  direct  or  indirect,  is  not  to  the  one 
pre-established  design." 

Constantine  the  Great  built  in  Constantinople  a  magnificent 
palace  of  red  porphyry,  in  which  princes  of  the  blood  royal  were 
born.  These  princes  were  called  "Porphyrogene."  The  use  of  the 
title  for  the  "Monarch  Thought"  in  Usher's  song  suggests  that  the 
mind  is  full  of  conceptions  as  splendid  as  the  beauties  of  the  Byzan 
tine  court  at  its  most  prosperous  period. 

Study  of  diction  and  sentence-structure  and  other  rhetorical 
features  may  be  included  in  the  structural  study  outlined  above, 
since  the  same  principle  of  effectiveness  governs  them. 

If  possible,  the  class  should  now  read  Poe's  Ligeia,  with  the  excel 
lent  analysis  of  the  tale  printed  in  Hamilton's  Materials  and  Methods 
of  Fiction,  pages  189  to  195. 

A  DESCENT  INTO  THE  MAELSTROM 

I.  Read  the  story  through,  and  determine  what  effect  the 
writer  wishes  to  produce  by  it.  Think  through  the  tale 


134         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

again,  and  decide  whether  it  is  written  with  the  same  unity 
of  effect  you  found  in  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

In  this  case  the  story  must  be  told  by  the  one  who  expe 
rienced  the  adventure,  because  only  through  him  could  it 
become  known.  The  listener  is  the  reader,  as  the  guest  was 
the  reader  in  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher.  As  in  the  story 
just  analyzed,  the  introduction  to  the  narrative  is  very  long, 
the  description  being  largely  disposed  of  before  the  narrative 
begins,  so  that  the  narrative  may  move  rapidly  and  without 
impediment. 

II.  Introduction  to  the  man's  story:  paragraphs  1-19. 

1.  Note  the  effect  of  the  abrupt  beginning. 

2.  The  character  of  the  adventure  is  foreshadowed  by  the 

effect  it  had  on  the  man's  physique:  paragraphs  1,  2. 

3.  The  spot  chosen  for  telling  the  story  is  important.    It 

is  a  high  cliff  overlooking  the  scene  of  the  adventure, 
the  proper  place  to  see  the  phenomena  the  writer  has 
to  describe.  The  perilousness  of  the  place  where 
the  story  is  to  be  told  also  adds  to  the  effect  of  the 
story  on  the  hearer.  To  be  on  top  of  the  cliff, 
even  far  back  from  its  verge,  would  terrify  any 
normal  person.  The  "old  man,"  even  in  his  " shat 
tered  nervous  condition,"  is  not  disturbed  by  this 
situation;  and  that  fact  helps  us  to  realize  that  an 
experience  which  he  would  call  " terrifying"  must 
have  been  fearful  beyond  the  power  of  an  ordinary 
imagination  to  conceive. 

4.  The  place  of  the  adventure  is  located:  paragraphs  5-8. 

Definite  naming  and  placing  make  it  seem  real  — • 
"that  particularizing  manner"  makes  the  account 
more  vivid. 

5.  An  account  of  the  Maelstrom  in  action  is  given  in 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  135 

paragraphs  9-17.  The  fearful  sight  is  made  more 
terrible  by  a  stunning  noise.  Only  to  look  on  is 
frightful  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  express;  how 
much  worse  to  be  in  it!  The  pretense  to  scientific 
accuracy  makes  the  account  seem  true.  The  notes 
in  your  text  doubtless  tell  you  something  of  the 
character  of  Poe's  "science." 

6.  Transition  to  the  narrative:  paragraphs  18-19. 

III.  The  "old  man's'7  story:  paragraphs  20-51. 

1.  Introduction:    paragraphs     20-23.       Habits    of    the 

brothers;  their  courage;  the  matter-of-fact  manner  of 
the  narrator  gives  a  semblance  of  reality  to  the  story ; 
the  men  are  brought  reasonably  into  a  dangerous 
situation.  How  is  the  ordinary  danger  shown? 
Are  these  men  so  reckless  as  to  forfeit  your  sympa 
thy?  Time  —  a  deceptively  pleasant  day,  three 
years  ago. 

2.  Narrative  proper:  paragraphs  24-51. 

a.  Combination  of  events  leading  to  trouble:  (a)  "By 

my  watch"  —  significance  of  italics?  (b)  Unusual 
and  sudden  storm.  In  the  general  introduction 
an  ordinary  movement  of  the  maelstrom  oc 
curred,  and  it  filled  the  spectator  with  sickening 
terror;  how  much  worse  is  this  combination  of 
hurricane  and  Moskoe-strom ! 

b.  Trace  the  narrative  step  by  step  to  its  climax.    Note 

the  use  of  noise  to  add  to  terror.  Does  the  tale  seem 
real  in  Poe's  manner  of  telling  it?  The  situation  is 
terrible  beyond  description  —  beyond  the  grasp 
of  the  imagination;  the  writer  therefore  tells 
its  effect  on  the  men.  One  brother  is  made  insane; 
the  other  becomes  calm  and  composed,  and  is 


136         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

more  conscious  of  awe  and  admiration  than  of 
fear.  He  is  even  able  to  reason  logically.  Does 
terror  ever  make  men  abnormally  sharp-witted? 
A  calm  style  is  necessary,  as  corresponding  to  the 
spirit  of  the  narrator,  and  because  no  language 
could  express  the  fearfulness  of  the  situation, 
c.  The  conclusion  (paragraph  51)  is  very  brief,  and 
gives  few  details  about  the  escape.  Why?  How 
does  the  narrator  give  all  this  the  air  of  truth? 
Compare  the  last  five  sentences  with  the  two  open 
ing  paragraphs  of  the  tale. 

III.  Discuss  in  a  written  paragraph  unity  of  effect  in  this 
tale. 

THE  PURLOINED  LETTER 
Nothing  is  more  hateful  to  wisdom  than  excessive  cleverness. 

I.  Introduction:  —  The    two    stories    by    Poe    already 
studied  were  written  to  produce  emotional  effect  —  horror 
and  terror.    This  tale  has  quite  another  purpose.    It  is  purely 
intellectual.     In  accordance  with  his  literary  theory,  Poe 
tells  us  this  at  once.    In  the  first  paragraph  he  mentions  two 
of  his  earlier  detective  stories,  and  the  policeman  and  the 
amateur  detective  that  figured  in  them.     This,  then,  is  a 
detective  story.    It  takes  us  to  Paris  in  the  time  when  France 
was  governed  by  a  king,  whose  court  was  full  of  intrigue. 
Read  the  story  for  pure  enjoyment  of  its  plot  —  of  seeing 
how  the  puzzle  is  solved.    After  that  you  may  study  in  detail 
the  problem  and  its  solution. 

II.  Analysis  of  the  tale:  — 

1.  State  fully  and  accurately  the  problem  before  the 
police.  Who  is  the  lady  compromised?  What  power 
over  her  has  the  Minister?  What  have  the  police 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  137 

done  to  obtain  the  letter?  Can  you  think  of  anything 
more  they  might  have  done? 

2.  Study  carefully  the  difference  in  mind  and  character 

between  the  Prefect  and  Dupin,  as  revealed  from  the 
beginning  of  the  story  through  the  second  visit  of 
the  Prefect,  and  in  Dupin's  discussion  of  the  Prefect's 
mistake  in  the  paragraph  beginning,  "For  its  prac 
tical  value  it  depends  upon  this." 

3.  The  solution. 

a.  On  what  broad  principle  did  Dupin  begin  his  work? 

Exactly  what  was  the  fault  of  the  police? 

b.  Follow  carefully  step  by  step  the  procedure  of  Dupin 

that  ended  in  the  recovery  of  the  letter.  To  under 
stand  this  thoroughly,  you  must  remember  that 
before  the  day  of  envelopes  the  letter-paper  itself 
was  folded  and  sealed,  and  the  address  was 
written  on  the  outside. 

4.  Was  Dupin's  interest  in  this  affair  entirely  intellectual 

and  impersonal? 

5.  Within  a  few  pages  from  the  opening  of  the  story  you 

know  how  it  "comes  out;"  i.  e.}  you  know  that  the 
letter  was  recovered.  Does  that  spoil  your  interest 
in  the  tale?  Give  the  reason  for  your  answer. 

6.  What  does  the  quotation  below  the  title  mean? 

7.  Does  the  tale  seem  true  as  you  are  reading  it?    What  is 

the  effect  of  the  discussion  about  mathematics? 
Which  of  all  Dupin's  illustrations  makes  most  clear 
to  you  his  reasoning  about  the  principle  of  his  search? 

THE  GOLD-BUG 

I.  Read  the  story  for  the  pleasure  you  get  out  of  it,  yield 
ing  your  mind  entirely  to  the  influence  of  the  writer.   You  will 


138         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

observe  that  in  this  tale,  as  in  some  others  by  Poe  which  we 
have  read,  the  author  first  gets  out  of  the  way  his  general  de 
scription  of  place  and  hero,  so  that,  when  he  has  once  begun 
to  narrate,  he  does  not  have  to  stop  for  description,  except  as 
fresh  scenes  are  introduced.  The  matter-of-fact  tone  of  the 
first  paragraphs  tells  you  this  tale  is  addressed  to  the  intellect 
and  not  to  the  emotions;  compare  this  opening  with  the 
emotional  introduction  to  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 
The  tale  has  two  lines  of  interest:  II  3  (below),  the  finding  of 
the  treasure,  and  II  4  (below),  the  solving  of  the  cryptograph. 
They  are  inter-dependent,  and  the  unity  is  therefore  good, 
because  II  3  would  be  impossible  without  II  4,  and  II  4  would 
be  pointless  without  II  3.  II  3,  which  by  itself  is  a  good  story 
of  adventure,  reaches  climax  and  conclusion  before  II  4  is 
begun.  Besides  II  3  and  II  4  there  is,  after  the  general  intro 
duction  (II  1),  an  opening  narrative  (II  2),  introducing  both 
II  3  and  II 4;  it  gives  an  account  of  the  friend's  first  visit,  ex 
plaining  what  the  gold-bug  is,  and  bringing  in  the  tone  of 
mystery.  As  in  some  other  tales  by  Poe,  the  reader  is 
represented  by  "I,"  the  friend  of  the  hero,  and  the  interested 
witness  of  the  adventure. 

II.  Analyze  the  tale  according  to  the  following  outline: 

1.  General  Introduction:  setting,  character. 

2.  Introductory  Narrative:  significant  points  in  first  visit. 

a.  Season  and  weather. 

b.  The  bug  had  been  lent,  and  must  be  described  by 

a  drawing. 

c.  As  there  was  no  paper  in  the  desk,  Legrand  used  a 

scrap  from  his  pocket. 

d.  The  dog,  entering  at  the  door  opposite  the  fire,  leaped 

on  the  guest,  who  would  naturally  hold  the  paper 
away  from  the  animal  and  toward  the  blaze. 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  139 

e.  Hints  of  a  coming  mystery. 

(1)  Earnestness  of  Legrand's  reply  to  Jupiter  as  to 

the  bug's  being  "  solid  gold." 

(2)  Appearance   of   the   skull   when   Legrand   had 

drawn  the  beetle. 

(3)  Conducfc  of  Legrand  when  he  saw  the  skull. 
3.  The  Discovery  of  the  Treasure. 

The  sense  of  mystery  is  at  once  deepened  and  connected 
with  gold  and  gold-bug;  the  influence  of  the  bug  on  Legrand 
seems  strange. 

a.  Introductory. 

(1)  Invitation  to  the  second  visit  —  mysterious  hints 

in  Legrand's  letter. 

(2)  Jupiter's  account  of  his  master's  strange  condi 

tion. 

(3)  Jupiter's   superstitious   fear   of  the   bug  —  the 

origin  of  the  "bit  of  paper." 

(4)  Buying  of  spades  and  scythes. 

(5)  Expedition  decided  on  —  Legrand  appears  un 

balanced. 

b.  The  search  for  the  treasure.     Follow  carefully  the 

journey  to  the  tree.  Was  the  place  described 
naturally  a  good  hiding-place?  Note  the  difficulty 
of  approach,  and  the  striking  appearance  of  the 
tulip-tree.  Follow  the  action  step  by  step  to  the 
finding  of  the  treasure.  Mark  the  point  at  which 
the  object  of  the  search  is  first  openly  stated;  where 
did  you  first  suspect  it?  The  delays  caused  by 
Jupiter's  mistakes  produce  suspense  —  for  the 
reader  as  well  as  for  Legrand.  His  last  mistake  is 
properly  the  most  serious,  and  almost  turns  Le 
grand  from  the  search.  Note  the  evidence  of  the 


140         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

increasing  excitement  of  Legrand;  how  did  he  be 
have  when,  because  of  Jupiter's  mistake  about  the 
eyes,  he  for  a  moment  abandoned  hope?  Mark  the 
point  at  which  the  friend  (i.  e.,  the  reader)  begins 
to  have  faith;  where  did  your  faith  begin?  List  all 
the  signs,  from  this  point  on,  that  there  is  really  a 
buried  treasure.  With  faith  and  signs  of  success 
the  interest  increases  rapidly  to  the  climax.  The 
minute  description  of  box  and  contents  gives 
verisimilitude  to  the  story,  as  scientific  accounts 
make  some  others  among  Poe's  tales  "  convincing," 
in  a  literary  sense.  Does  Legrand  behave  nat 
urally  when  he  finds  himself  successful?  The  con 
clusion  of  this  part  of  the  plot  is  the  removal  of  the 
treasure  to  the  home  of  Legrand  and  the  deter 
mination  of  its  value. 

The  paragraph  "When  at  length,"  etc.  is  transitional  to 
part  4  below. 

4.  The  solution  of  the  cryptograph. 

a.  Introductory:  Legrand  recounts  the  circumstances  of 

the  friend's  first  visit;  compare  with  II  1.  He  adds 
that  the  "paper"  was  parchment,  and  tells  of  his 
mystification  about  the  skull.  Is  it  necessary  to 
the  story  that  the  beetle  should  be  found  alive? 

b.  The  parchment  suggests  pirate-treasure.    Find  four 

reasons  Poe  gives  for  this. 

c.  Follow  the  course  of  reasoning  that  led  Legrand  to 

develop  the  writing  on  the  parchment. 

d.  After  the  cryptograph  was  made  legible,  by  what 

principle  set  forth  by  Dupin  (in  The  Purloined 
Letter)  did  Legrand  decide  whether  it  would  be 
hard  or  easy  to  solve?  How  did  he  know  it  was  in 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  141 

English  when  so  many  of  the  old  pirates  were 
Spaniards? 

e.  Explain  clearly  how  he  translated  the  symbols  into 

letters. 

f .  Explain  clearly  how  he  divided  the  clauses  and  sen 

tences. 

g.  Explain  clearly  how  he  overcame  the  difficulties  he 

encountered  in  trying  to  apply  the  directions  to  the 
landscape. 

h.  Does  Legrand  explain  in  the  last  eight  paragraphs 
any  points  about  the  hiding  and  the  discovery  of 
the  treasure  left  obscure  by  II  3?    How  does  he 
account  for  his  apparent  insanity? 
III.  General  questions: 

1.  Which  part  of  the  tale  is  of  greater  interest,  II  3  or  II  4?    Does 
II  4  lose  in  interest  because  it  comes  after  you  know  the  treasure  is 
found?    Should  you  prefer  II  4  before  II  3?    Compare  the  management 
of  the  plan  and  the  escape  in  A  Descent  into  the  Maelstrom. 

2.  How  essential  is  the  gold-bug  in  II  3?    In  II  4?    What  is  its  office 
in  the  tale?    Justify  the  title  of  the  tale.    Why  does  not  Poe  tell  us  what 
became  of  the  bug?    Is  the  story  complete  without  that  information? 

3.  Is  the  story  probable?    Does  it  seem  probable?    Does  the  introduc 
tion  of  scientific  fact  (the  chemical  treatment  of  the  parchment)  give 
it  verisimilitude?     Compare  with  the  use  of  scientific  material  in  A 
Descent  into  the  Maelstrom, 

4.  Is  this  location  a  better  one  than  the  coast  further  north  for  the 
setting  of  a  pirate  story?    Give  the  reason  for  your  answer.    Where  was 
"the  Spanish  main,"  once  infested  by  pirates?    Mention  the  essential 
points  in  the  setting. 

5.  Dialogue  is  not  found  very  much  in  Poe's  tales.    Has  he  used  it 
successfully  here? 

6.  How  does  he  attempt  humor  in  this  story?    Is  he  successful  in 
this  regard? 

7.  Has  Poe  chosen  an  appropriate  bit  of  poetry  for  the  opening  of  this 
tale?    The  drama  All  in  the  Wrong  was  written  by  an  Irishman,  Arthur 


142         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Murphy  (1727-1805).     A  scholar  who  has  looked  in  the  play  for  the 
quotation  tells  us  he  does  not  find  it  there. 

8.  What  did  Poe  know  about  the  coast  of  South  Carolina?    Are  his 
descriptions  accurate? 

9.  For  a  somewhat  similar  method  of  solution  actually  applied  to 
deciphering  an  inscription  in  an  unknown  language,  see  Dr.  Hempl's 
"  The  Solving   of    an   Ancient    Riddle,"    in    Harper's   Magazine   for 
January,  1911. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life,  Letlers,and  Journal,  3  Vol.,by  Samuel  Longfellow;  Boston,  1886. 

Final  Memorials,  by  Samuel  Longfellow;  Boston,  1887. 

Life,  by  F.  H.  Underwood;  Boston,  1882. 

Life,  Works,  and  Friendships,  by  G.  L.  Austin;  Boston,  1883. 

Life,  by  T.  W.  Higginson;  Boston,  1902. 

Life,  by  W.  S.  Kennedy;  Boston,  1882. 

Life,  by  Eric  S.  Robertson;  London,  1887. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

A  Psalm  of  Life,  The  Reaper  and  the  Flowers,  The  Light  of  Stars, 
The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  The  Village  Blacksmith,  The  Rainy  Day, 
Endymion,  God's  Acre,  Maidenhood,  Excelsior,  Nuremberg,  The 
Belfry  of  Bruges,  Rain  in  Summer,  The  Bridge,  The  Day  is  Done,  The 
Arrow  and  the  Song,  The  Builders,  The  Ladder  of  St.  Augustine,  The 
Ropewalk,  St.  Filomena,  Sandalphon,  The  Revenge  of  Rain-in-the-Face, 
The  Three  Kings,  The  Sifting  of  Peter,  Maiden  and  Weathercock,  The 
Windmill,  The  Phantom  Ship,  The  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 

See  also  Appendix  I,  titles  33  to  39  inclusive. 

THE  OLD  CLOCK  ON  THE  STAIRS 

I.  In  his  Journal  entry  for  November  12,  1845,  the  poet 

says:  — 

Began  a  poem  on  a  clock,  with  the  words  'Forever,  Never,'  as  a 
burden;  suggested  by  the  words  of  Bridainc,  the  old  French  missionary, 
who  said  of  eternity,  "It  is  a  clock  whose  pendulum  says  and  repeats 
without  ceasing  these  two  words  only,  in  the  silence  of  tombs  — 'Tou- 

143 


144         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

jours,  jamais!  Jamais,  toujours! '  And  during  these  solemn  revolutions  a 
condemned  sinner  cries,  'What  time  is  it?'  and  the  voice  of  another 
wretch  responds,  'It  is  eternity!'" 

The  country  seat  and  the  clock  belonged  to  relatives  of  the 
second  Mrs.  Longfellow,  who  lived  at  Pittsfield,  Massachu 
setts.  The  clock  is  still  in  the  Appleton  family,  and  is  said  to 
resemble  very  much  the  one  that  stands  "  half  -way  up  the 
stairs"  in  the  Longfellow  home  at  Cambridge.  The  clock 
suggests  to  the  poet  the  family  life  it  must  have  seen  in  the 
years  it  has  stood  in  this  central  and  commanding  position. 

II.  Read  the  poem  by  stanzas  aloud  thoughtfully,  with 
this  outline: 

Stanza  1.  The  house  and  its  location. 
Stanza  2.  The  clock  —  its  position  and  appearance. 
Stanza  3.  Its  voice. 
Stanzas  4-7.  Its  message. 
Stanza  8.  The  family  scattered. 
Stanza  9.  The  eternal  reunion. 

State  briefly  and  clearly  Longfellow's  purpose  in  writing 
this  poem. 

III.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  refrain?    You  notice  in  it  the 
predominating  sound  of  the  front  vowel  e  and  the  liquid  r. 
Review  Poe's  discussion  of  his  choice  of  resonant  o  and  liquid 
r  for  the  refrain  of  The  Raven.    Notice  that  the  rhythm  of  the 
refrain  in  The  Old  Clock  imitates  the  swinging  of  the  pendu 
lum,  and  the  accents  suggest  the  ticking.     Is  Longfellow's 
refrain  as  good  for  his  poem  as  Poe's  was  for  his?    Notice 
how  Longfellow  has  secured  variety  in  the  "application"  of 
his  refrain;  and  notice  that  in  the  line  introducing  the  refrain 
in  each  stanza  there  is  a  word  particularly  suitable  to  the 
thought,  diction,  or  figure  of  that  stanza. 

IV.  Discuss  in  detail  the  diction,  figures,  allusions,  sentence- 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  145 

structure,  melody,  and  harmony  of  the  poem.  Pay  particular 
attention  to  the  following  notes  and  questions : 

Line  10.  Connect  with  the  simile  in  line  12. 

Lines  17ff.  Why  is  the  clock  so  noisy  by  night? 

Line  34.  What  figure  in  Hospitality f  Notice  that  the 
pronoun  his  is  used  in  referring  to  this  noun. 

Line  37.  The  skeleton  was,  in  early,  ascetic  days,  placed 
at  the  feast  to  remind  the  revellers  of  their  mortality.  The 
old  exhortation  was,  " Prepare  for  death."  Our  modern 
thought  is,  "Live;  get  all  you  can,  in  the  best  sense,  out  of 
life."  When  we  are  happy,  we  do  not  wish  to  hear  a  warning 
voice  say,  "  Memento  mori;"  neither  do  we  think  that  it 
would  be  wholesome  to  spoil  our  pleasures  with  such  an 
admonition. 

Line  45.  Explain  the  figure. 

Line  46.  Told  has  the  old  meaning  "  counted." 

Line  52.  What  figure  of  speech  in  snow? 

Lines  65,  68.  What  emphasis  do  you  make  in  these  lines  to 
bring  out  the  full  meaning? 

Line  69.  Refer  to  the  words  of  the  French  missionary  in 
explaining  this  metaphor. 

V.  Read  the  poem  again,  aloud.    Try  to  express  all  Long 
fellow's  feeling  about  the  never-ending  succession  of  minutes 
that  make  up  time  and  eternity.     The  unceasing,  insistent 
regularity  of  the  ticking  of  the  clock  forces  the  thought  of 
eternity  upon  you. 

VI.  Turn  to  Longfellow's  little  poem   called   The   Tide 
Rises,  the  Tide  Falls.    After  a  first  reading  tell  the  simple 
story  it  relates.    Read  a  second  time,  giving  particular  atten 
tion  to  the  refrain.    How  are  the  two  phrases  of  the  refrain 
imitative?    Why  is  the  absolute  monotony  of  this  line,  re 
curring  so  frequently,  an  artistic  feature  in  this  poem?    Read 


146         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  poem  to  bring  out  the  sound  effect  intended  by  the 
writer. 

MY  LOST  YOUTH 

I.  In  his  Journal  for  March  29,  1855,  the  poet  says: 

A  day  of  pain;  cowering  over  the  fire.  At  night  as  I  lie  in  bed,  a  poem 
comes  into  my  mind  —  a  memory  of  Portland,  my  native  town,  the  city 
by  the  sea. 

'Sitteth  the  city  wherein  I  was  born 
Upon  the  seashore.' 

— DANTE,  Inferno  V,  97. 

Under  March  30  we  read : 

Wrote  the  poem;  and  am  rather  pleased  with  it,  and  with  the  bringing 
in  of  the  two  lines  of  the  old  Lapland  song, 

A  boy's  will  is  the  wind's  will, 

And  the  thoughts  of  youth  are  long,  long  thoughts. 

See  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  II,  284. 

II.  Study  first  in  this  poem  the  stanza  structure.    There 
are  ten  stanzas  of  nine  lines  each,  and  the  movement  is  iambi c- 
anapestic.     How  many  feet  in  the  various  lines?    What  is 
the  rime-scheme?    Notice  in  each  stanza  the  rime  of  line  6 
with  long  in  line  9.    The  movement  brings  out  the  tone  of 
quiet,   meditative  reminiscence.     Observe  the  number  of 
long,  retarding  vowels. 

The  last  two  lines  of  each  stanza  repeat  the  refrain;  the 
two  lines  immediately  before  them  introduce  it.  The  special 
thought,  then,  of  each  stanza  is  in  its  first  five  lines. 

The  first  stanza  introduces  the  theme  and  states  the  source 
of  the  refrain;  stanzas  two  to  eight  speak  of  the  poet's 
memories  of  his  boyhood  in  Portland;  the  ninth  and  tenth 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  147 

stanzas  conclude  the  poem  by  telling  how  the  man  feels 
when  he  revisits  the  old  home. 

III.  Each  stanza  should  now  be  studied  as  a  unit.    What 
is  the  subject  of  each?    Which  speak  of  events  and  surround 
ings  of  his  boyhood?    Which  of  feelings?    How  does  the  poet 
enrich  and  strengthen  his  expression,  and  make  his  descrip 
tion  vivid  by  his  choice  of  words  and  use  of  figures?    Does  the 
sound  add  to  the  emotional  effect  in  any  of  the  stanzas? 

The  following  notes  explain  the  only  allusions  that  could 
possibly  be  obscure :  — 

The  fortifications  of  Portland  were  made  during  the  second 
war  with  England,  Portland  then  being  a  much  more  promi 
nent  harbor  than  now. 

Of  the  naval  battle  near  Portland,  Austin  (Longfellow, 
p.  42)  says: 

On  September  4,  1813,  The  Boxer,  British  brig  of  war,  Captain  S. 
Blythe,  was  captured  off  the  Maine  coast  by  the  American  brig  Enter 
prise,  Lieutenant  W.  Burrows,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  seventh  was 
brought  into  Portland  harbor.  On  the  next  day  both  commanders,  who 
had  been  killed  in  the  encounter,  were  buried  with  imposing  and  im 
pressive  ceremonies  in  the  cemetery  at  the  foot  of  Munjoy's  Hill. 

Deering's  Woods  was  a  grove  near  Portland,  a  favorite 
resort  among  the  young  people. 

Hesperides  is  explained  by  books  on  mythology. 

IV.  Turn  now  to  the  refrain,  taken  from  the  "  Lapland 
song."    With  the  first  line  compare,  —  "The  wind  bloweth 
where  it  listeth,  and  thou  hearest  the  sound  thereof,  but 
canst  not  tell  whence  it  cometh,  and  whither  it  goeth."  — 
John  3:8.    What  adjectives  used  in  the  poem  to  describe  the 
song  describe  also  the  willfulness  of  a  boy's  impulses?    Ex 
plain  the  second  line  from  your  own  thoughts  and  dreams  of 
the  future.     Which  stanzas  in  the  poem  are  subjective? 


148         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

What  specific  words  do  you  find  in  these  defining  the  "long, 
long  thoughts"  of  boyhood? 

Is  the  retard  at  the  end  of  each  stanza  in  harmony  with  the 
thought? 

Regarding  the  use  of  a  refrain,  Poe  says: — 

As  commonly  used,  the  refrain,  or  burden,  not  only  is  limited  to 
lyric  verse,  but  depends  for  its  impression  upon  the  force  of  monotone  — • 
both  in  sound  and  thought.  The  pleasure  is  deduced  solely  from  the 
sense  of  identity  —  of  repetition.  I  resolved  to  diversify,  and  so 
heighten,  the  effect,  by  adhering,  in  general,  to  the  monotone  of  sound, 
while  I  continually  varied  that  of  thought;  that  is  to  say,  I  determined 
to  produce  continuously  novel  effects  by  the  variation  of  the  application 
of  the  refrain  —  the  refrain  itself  remaining,  for  the  most  part,  un 
varied. 

—  The  Philosophy  of  Composition. 

Poe  later  explains  that  the  variation  of  "  application " 
consists  in  leading  up  in  different  ways  to  the  refrain. 

Show  how  Longfellow,  in  the  two  lines  that  lead  up  to  the 
refrain  in  each  stanza,  has  attained  not  only  variety,  but 
also  harmony  with  the  thought  and  diction  of  the  stanza. 

V.  Read  the  poem  from  beginning  to  end  aloud.  Bring 
out  the  note  of  pathos  which  must  belong  to  any  man's 
memory  of  his  "  lost  youth."  Remember  what  Poe  says  of  the 
value  of  the  " monotone  of  sound"  in  the  refrain,  and  of  the 
"  variation  of  the  application"  in  the  lines  that  lead  up  to  it. 

THREE  FRIENDS  OF  MINE 

I.  These  five  sonnets  form  the  five  stanzas  of  one  poem. 
The  first  sonnet  is  introductory,  the  last  is  a  conclusion,  and 
the  three  intermediate  ones  are  addressed  to  the  three  friends. 
The  line  is  iambic  pentameter,  and  the  rime-scheme  is  abba 
abba  for  the  octave,  and  cde  cde  for  the  sestet. 


HENRY  WADSWORTH   LONGFELLOW  149 

The  octave  of  the  first,  or  introductory,  sonnet  expresses 
the  poet's  feeling  for  the  character  of  his  friends;  the  sestet 
expresses  his  sense  of  loss  in  their  death  and  his  thought  of 
them  in  the  new  world  to  which  they  have  gone. 

II.  The  second  sonnet  commemorates  Charles  C.  Felton, 
for  many  years  Professor  of  Greek  at  Harvard,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  president  of  the  College.  For  an  account  of 
the  friendship  of  Longfellow  with  Felton  and  with  the  two 
men  celebrated  in  the  two  stanzas  following,  the  student 
should  consult  Longfellow's  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal.  (See 
their  names  in  the  index.)  In  this  sonnet  written  for  Felton 
the  allusions  are  properly  all  to  Greek  literature  and  history, 
for  he  was  a  celebrated  Philhellene  ("  lover  of  Greek  ")  in 
his  day.  The  last  three  lines  of  the  sestet  express  the  poet's 
grief  for  the  loss  of  this  friend. 

The  third  sonnet  is  in  honor  of  Louis  Agassiz,  a  Swiss  by 
birth,  Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Harvard.  Longfellow 
has  addressed  other  poems  to  Agassiz.  (See  the  index  to 
Longfellow's  Poems.)  Agassiz  was  not  only  a  great  scientist 
but  a  man  of  high  and  noble  character  and  poetic  soul.  Whit- 
tier,  Lowell,  Holmes,  and  other  New  England  poets  have 
written  in  his  honor.  Show  how  this  sonnet  appropriately 
commemorates  the  greatest  scientist  of  his  time.  The  "  cot 
tage  door"  is  that  of  the  summer  home  by  the  sea,  where 
Agassiz  studied  the  forms  of  sea-life. 

The  fourth  sonnet  is  in  honor  of  Charles  Sumner,  the  fa 
mous  senator  from  Massachusetts,  to  whom,  as  well  as  to 
Charles  C.  Felton,  Longfellow  refers  in  his  poem  To  the  River 
Charles.  Charles  River  at  Cambridge  flows  beside  Mount 
Auburn  Cemetery  ("The  City  of  the  Dead"),  where  are 
buried  Sumner,  Agassiz,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Holmes,  and 
other  illustrious  men  of  Boston  and  Cambridge.  Notice 


150         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

particularly  the  beauty  and  suitableness  of  the  figures  of 
speech  in  this  fourth  sonnet. 

III.  The  concluding  sonnet  takes  us  to  the  poet's  library, 
and  shows  us  the  summer  scene  he  beholds  from  his  window  — 
the  lilac  hedge  that  separates  his  lawn  from  the  street,  the 
winding  River  Charles  at  flood  tide,  the  misty  Brighton  mead 
ows  —  a  view  he  has  often  enjoyed  with  his  three  friends. 
The  sonnet  closes  with  an  expression  of  the  unsatisfied  long 
ing  felt  by  one  who  lingers  when  his  dearest  have  passed  on. 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Try  to  bring  out  its  music  and 
its  haunting  note  of  loneliness  and  longing. 

THE  ARSENAL  AT  SPRINGFIELD 

I.  This  poem  was  suggested  by  a  visit  Mr.  Longfellow,  his 
wife,  and  Mr.  Sumner  made  to  the  United  States  Arsenal 
at  Springfield,  Massachusetts.  Mr.  Sumner  remarked  that 
the  money  paid  for  the  weapons  would  have  been  better 
spent  in  building  and  furnishing  a  library  (see  stanza  9),  and 
Mrs.  Longfellow  asked  her  husband  to  write  a  peace  poem. 
In  response  to  his  wife's  request,  the  poet  might  write  in 
praise  of  the  arts  of  peace,  or  he  might  show  the  horrors  of 
war.  Which  method  does  he  choose?  Compare  the  effect 
of  this  poem  with  that  of  some  poem  setting  forth  the  pomp 
and  glories  of  war  —  with  Tennyson's  Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade.  The  latter  shows  us  that  certain  virtues  —  as  cour 
age  and  prompt,  unquestioning  obedience  —  are  developed 
in  battle;  on  reading  it  we  feel  as  if  we  should  like  to  be  sol 
diers  and  do  something  brave.  Do  you  feel  that  when  you 
read  Longfellow's  poem?  Has  he  written  a  peace  poem? 
See  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal  by  S.  Longfellow,  II,  2, 3, 18,  19. 
The  thought  of  the  poem  is,  however,  optimistic :  though  war 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  151 

has  prevailed  in  the  past  (lines  11,  12),  peace  will  some  day 
reign  among  the  nations  of  earth  (lines  41,  42). 

II.  As  the  Longfellow  party  stood  before  the  stacked  mus 
kets,  Mrs.  Longfellow  remarked  that  they  looked  like  the  pipes 
of  a  great  organ,  and  that  Death  would  bring  mournful  music 
from  them.  The  poet  adopted  his  wife's  comparison  for  the 
base  of  his  poem,  and  constructed  it  on  simile  and  metaphor 
taken  from  her  remark.  Read  the  poem  once  more,  noting 
every  word  that  belongs  to  this  figure. 

In  harmony  with  this  predominating  figure  of  speech,  the 
poem  speaks  chiefly  of  the  sounds  of  war  instead  of  the  sights 
of  battle.  It  mentions  the  war  instruments  of  several  nations 
celebrated  for  their  warlike  character.  Make  a  list  of  in 
struments  ;  also  a  list  of  nations,  and  tell  why  these  particular 
ones  are  mentioned  here.  What  sounds  are  named  as  coming 
from  the  victims  of  war?  What  from  the  soldiers?  What 
sounding  weapons  are  named?  What  sounds  made  by 
weapons?  List  the  adjectives  describing  the  sounds  of  war, 
and  observe  their  character.  Mark  the  onomatopoetic  words 
in  all  the  lists  you  have  made  when  working  out  the  questions 
in  this  paragraph. 

In  contrast  to  the  terrible  sounds  of  war  are  the  sweet 
and  tender  ones  of  peace.  Make  a  list  of  peace  sounds  men 
tioned  in  the  poem.  Observe  the  character,  of  the  adjectives 
that  describe  them,  and  mark  all  onomatopoetic  words.  In 
stanzas  8  and  12  you  will  find  the  contrast  between  sounds  of 
peace  and  those  of  war  particularly  striking. 

Discuss  the  use  in  this  poem  of  other  devices  for  producing 
sound-effects;  as  assonance  and  alliteration,  choice  of  words 
containing  explosives  or  spirants,  etc.  Why  is  the  poem  so 
strong  in  sound  devices?  The  prevailing  foot  is  iambic,  and 
there  are  five  feet  in  a  line.  There  is  much  variety  in  placing 


152         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  accent,  but  the  iambic  rhythm  prevails.  An  extra  un 
accented  syllable  at  the  end  of  lines  one  and  three  of  each 
stanza  gives  them  a  falling  cadence  and  makes  a  feminine 
rime. 

III.  Study  the  poem  for  other  figures  beside  the  basal  met 
aphor.    The  allusion  to  Cain  should  be  explained  by  refer 
ence  to  Genesis  4:15,  and  Ezekiel  9:4.    A  sign  was  set  in  the 
forehead  of  Cain,  which  branded  him  as  the  murderer  of  his 
brother.    Explain  dark  (line  41)  as  "obscure,  unknown;"  and 
refer  line  43  to  stanza  3. 

In  stanza  8  Longfellow  refers  to  one  of  the  beautiful  and 
poetic  notions  of  ancient  science.  The  old  philosophers  be 
lieved  that  the  spheres  which  carried  about  the  heavenly 
bodies  made,  in  their  turning,  most  exquisite  melodies  — 
"the  celestial  harmonies." 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Strive  to  bring  out  the  sound 
effects  studied  above  —  onomatopoea,   alliteration,  contrast 
between  the  harsh  and  the  melodious,  etc.     They  are  im 
portant  because  they  help  greatly  to  accomplish  the  purpose 
of  the  poem  —  to  make  war  hateful  and  peace  lovely. 

THE  SKELETON  IN  ARMOR 

I.  This  poem  was  written  in  1840.  In  1838  the  poet  re 
corded  in  his  journal  his  interest  in  Scandinavian  Sagas,  and 
his  intention  to  write  a  series  of  ballads  on  the  visit  of  the 
Vikings  to  the  western  world.  (Life,  Letters,  and  Journal, 
I,  297).  Later  he  visited  Newport,  and,  passing  through 
Fall  River,  saw  the  skeleton  which  had  been  unearthed  at 
that  place.  He  decided  then  on  a  heroic  poem  in  which  the 
Round  Tower  at  Newport  and  the  Skeleton  in  Armor  should 
have  a  part.  (Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  I,  335,  379.)  The 
skeleton  was  supposed  at  first  to  be  that  of  a  Viking,  but 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  153 

scholars  do  not  now  believe  that  it  is  Norse.  (See  Justin 
Windsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  the  United  States, 
I,  105.).  However,  the  historical  truth  or  untruth  of  its 
story  makes  no  difference  in  the  literary  quality  of  the  ballad; 
and  every  person  who  has  made  a  little  study  of  the  old 
Northern  Sagas  must  see  how  wonderfully  the  poet  has 
caught  their  spirit  and  imitated  some  qualities  of  their  style. 
In  a  letter  to  his  father,  December  13,  1840,  he  says,  "Of 
course  I  make  the  tradition  myself;  and  I  think  I  have  suc 
ceeded  in  giving  the  whole  a  Norse  atmosphere."  (Life, 
Letters,  and  Journal,  I,  379.)  Look  through  the  index  to 
Longfellow's  Poems,  and  see  what  other  tales  he  has  from 
the  Norse. 

II.  Read  the  poem  carefully,  with  the  outline  given  below. 

1.  Introduction:  lines  1-24. 

a.  Apostrophe  of  the  poet  to  the  Skeleton. 

b.  Introduction  to  the  Skeleton's  speech. 

c.  The  Skeleton's  introduction  to  his  tale. 

2.  The  Tale  of  the  Skeleton:  lines  25-159. 

a.  His  youth :  lines  25-40.    What  qualities  are  developed 

in  him  by  his  education? 

b.  His   young   manhood. 

(1).  Life  as  a  Viking:  lines  41-64. 
(2).  Love  and  marriage:  lines  65-132. 

c.  His  life  and  death  in  the  New  World:  lines  135-160. 

3.  The  last  stanza  is  the  Viking's  conclusion  to  his  tale; 

the  last  line  is  the  poet's  conclusion  to  his  poem. 

III.  Study  the  Norse  features  of  the  poem. 

1.  In  the  general  expression:  Norse  poems  and  tales  some 
times  seem  to  us  a  little  abrupt.  They  often  pass 
briefly  over  a  dramatic  Situation  that  the  more 
effusive  poets  of  southern  Europe  would  make  much 


154         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

of.  The  Old  Norse  poetry  shows,  also,  great  emo 
tional  self-restraint,  often  speaking  briefly  and  simply 
of  intense  feelings.  Illustrate  these  qualities  from 
the  ballad. 

2.  The  pictures  of  Norse  customs  correspond  well  with 

accounts  we  have  of  them  in  the  old  stories.  What 
do  you  learn  from  this  poem  about  the  education  of 
young  Norsemen;  about  drinking,  feasting,  Berserks, 
story-telling,  class  feeling,  etc.?  Make  a  list  of  words 
referring  to  Norse  and  mediaeval  customs,  literature, 
beliefs,  etc.  Notice  particularly  in  the  last  stanza 
their  belief  that  they  will  drink  in  Valhal  around  the 
table  of  Odin.  Skoal  is  a  drinking  salutation,  like 
"Your  health."  Heart's  chamber  for  "chest"  or 
"bosom"  reminds  one  of  the  old  Germanic  "ken 
ning,"  or  round-about  poetic  expression.  The  proper 
nouns,  too,  are  Germanic.  Notice  geographical 
names. 

3.  Figures.  —  Give  particular  attention  to  the  metaphors 

and  similes.  Does  the  Viking  use  those  that  a  man 
of  his  experience  as  hunter  and  sailor  would  be  likely 
to  choose?  Do  not  be  surprised  because  he  is  so 
•  poetic;  the  old  Norsemen  were  full  of  imagination. 
How  does  the  Viking  speak  of  the  Princess  in  figure? 
Of  himself?  Why?  Are  the  figures  used  in  the  first 
two  stanzas  in  harmony  with  those  in  the  body  of  the 
poem?  Do  you  find  other  figures  besides  simile  and 
metaphor?  Explain  the  allusion  in  line  5.  Explain 
this  in  line  24.  To  what  question  is  line  24  an 
answer? 

IV.  Longfellow   could  not   here  use  the  regular  ballad 
stanza  (see  Lowell's  The  Singing  Leaves),  because  it  would 


HENRY  WADSWORTH   LONGFELLOW  155 

suggest  Early  English  and  not  Norse.  Neither  could  he 
imitate  the  old  Norse  line,  because  that  poetry  was  entirely 
different  from  our  modern  verse  in  structure.  However,  he 
has  chosen  a  rhythm  that  suggests  something  of  the  move 
ment  of  the  old  Teutonic.  The  stanza  of  this  poem  is  the 
same  as  that  of  a  part  of  an  old  ballad  written  in  the  days  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  Dray  ton's  Battle  of  Agincourt.  There  are 
three  lines  of  three  feet  ending  in  a  rest,  followed  by  one  line 
of  two  feet.  The  movement  is  trochaic  and  dactylic.  The 
rimes  are  aaabcccb;  b  is  feminine.  There  is  a  pause  at  the  end 
of  most  of  the  lines,  and  the  sentences  have  the  effect  of 
being  short  (though  they  are  not),  because  they  are  made  up 
of  short,  line-bound  phrases.  Notice  the  amount  of  sentence 
inversion,  and  explain  its  effect  here. 
V.  Read  the  poem  aloud. 

In  an  article  by  Edward  Thorstenberg  entitled  The  Skeleton  in 
Armor  and  the  Frithjof  Saga,  may  be  found  many  interesting  paral 
lels  between  Longfellow's  poem  and  the  modernization  of  an  old  saga 
by  the  Scandinavian  poet  Tegner.  See  Modern  Language  Notes, 
Vol.  XXV,  No.  6  (June,  1910),  pages  189-192.  Longfellow  knew 
and  admired  the  work  of  Tegner. 

THE  BUILDING  OF  THE  SHIP 

I.  As  a  boy,  Longfellow  lived  in  Portland,  Maine,  in  those 
days  the  chief  ship-building  city  in  the  country.  Every  boy 
is,  and  ought  to  be,  interested  in  the  industries  of  the  town 
in  which  he  lives.  In  his  poem  called  My  Lost  Youth,  Long 
fellow  tells  of  his  interest  in  the  wharves  and  the  ships,  and 
we  may  be  sure  he  had  watched  the  construction  of  more  than 
one  vessel.  In  later  life,  Longfellow  often  visited  the  seashore, 
near  which  he  always  lived.  What  was  the  name  of  the 


156         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

volume  in  which  this  poem  first  appeared?    What  other  sea- 
poems  did  Longfellow  write? 

II.  Read  this  poem.    You  will  notice  that  two  lines  of  ac 
tion  are  woven  together:  (1)  the  building  and  launching  of  the 
ship,  and  (2)  the  courtship  and  marriage  of  the  Master's 
daughter.    These  two  lines  are  united  in  four  ways,    (a)  The 
courtship  is  the  time  of  building,  and  the  wedding-day  is  the 
day  of  launching,     (b)  The  ship  is  named  " Union"  in  honor 
of  the  marriage,    (c)  The  persons  in  the  two  lines  are  practi 
cally  identical:  those  in  1  are  the  Master  and  his  assistant; 
those  in  2  are  the  Master's  daughter  and  the  assistant,     (d) 
The  two  lines  are  interwoven  by  an  interchange  of  figures,  the 
ship  and  the  sea  being  spoken  of  in  terms  of  human  life,  and 
human  life  in  terms  of  the  ship  and  the  sea. 

The  building  of  the  ship  follows  the  natural,  business  pro 
cedure.  First,  the  order  is  given  by  the  merchant  (lines  1-4). 
Then  the  plans  are  drawn  by  the  master  of  the  ship-yard 
(lines  17-54).  Then  the  lumber  is  brought  into  the  yard 
(lines  55-69).  Then  the  work  of  building  is  actually  begun 
(line  70). 

III.  Study  the  style  of  the  poem. 

1.  Diction.    In  a  poem  on  ship-building,  you  will  naturally 
find  many  technical  terms.    These  need  cause  you  no  trouble 
if  you  look  them  up  carefully  in  an  unabridged  dictionary;  the 
pictures  in  the  dictionary  will  help  you  to  understand  the 
explanations  and  definitions.    Notice  also  the  words  in  this 
poem  chosen  from  the  poetic  vocabulary. 

2.  Figures.    A  large  part  of  the  beauty  of  this  poem  is  in  its 
figures,  especially  in  its  figures  of  comparison.    Explain  those 
in  lines  10,  20-21,  72-77,  155,  166,  202,  206,  219,  232-245, 
255;  are  they  appropriate  to  this  poem?    The  figure  in  lines 
117-121  finds  its  reverse  in  lines  258-284,  350-365,  and  is 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  157 


A  Ship  on  the  Blocks 


158         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

continued  in  lines  368-376.  This  is  the  comparison  men 
tioned  above  as  binding  together  the  two  thoughts  of  the 
poem,  the  ship  being  spoken  of  in  terms  of  the  bride  (and  vice 
versa)  and  the  sea  in  terms  of  the  bride-groom  (and  vice 
versa).  This  figure  is  particularly  beautiful  and  effective  in 
this  poem,  and  should  be  thoroughly  studied.  The  word 
pastor  (line  300)  suggests  the  metaphor  of  the  next  four 
lines,  for  the  original  meaning  of  pastor  is  "  shepherd."  The 
metaphor  of  lines  308-315  is  appropriate  in  discussing  a 
sailor's  life ;  explain  it  fully.  The  wedding  sermon  of  the  good 
pastor  (lines  317-339)  is  addressed  to  a  sea-faring  company, 
and  he  speaks  to  them,  very  wisely,  in  terms  of  the  sea.  Ex 
plain  clearly  his  metaphors.  Discuss  also  the  use  of  apos 
trophe  and  personification  in  this  poem. 

3.  The  poem  contains  a  number  of  literary  allusions.    The 
metaphor  "wooden  wall"  applied  to  the  ship  (line  69)  refers 
to  a  famous  utterance  of  the  Delphic  oracle  when  Xerxes  was 
invading  Greece.    Explain  the  allusion.    The  " Great  Harry" 
(line  29)  was  a  ship  built  in  England  under  Henry  VIII; 
Longfellow   tells   you   its    faults    in   construction.     Argosy 
(line  73)  recalls  the  expedition  of  Jason  in  quest  of  the  Golden 
Fleece.     "The  Spanish  Main"  (line  151)  recalls  those  ro 
mantic  days  when  West  Indian  seas  were  infested  by  the 
Spanish  pirates.     Lines  157-162  take  us  to  the  shores  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.     Lines  213,  214,   contain  names  from 
classic  mythology.     "The  Fortunate  Isles"   (line  337)  ex 
isted  in  the  belief  of  seamen  of  other  days  as  an  abode  of  the 
blessed  after  death. 

4.  Not  a  great  deal  of  narrative  power  is  required  for  this 
poem,  the  action  being  the  slightest  possible.    The  descrip 
tion  of  the  ship  is  of  the  sort  sometimes  called  "dynamic," 
i.  e.,  the  poet  describes  the  ship  by  giving  an  account  of  its 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  159 

construction:  the  modeling  (lines  17-50);  the  purchase  of 
timber  (lines  55-69);  the  building  of  the  hull  (lines  128-139, 
176-207);  the  placing  of  the  figure-head  (lines  208-222);  the 
procuring  of  timbers  for  masts  (lines  228-245);  the  raising 
of  the  rigging  (lines  246-257).  A  fine  picture  in  words,  the 
one  which  furnishes  the  best  opportunity  for  an  illustrator  of 
the  poem,  is  that  of  the  evening  hour  of  rest  (lines  144-175). 
The  setting  is  the  dim  porch  of  the  Master's  house.  The 
Master  sits  in  the  back-ground  in  the  attitude  of  a  story 
teller.  The  red  glow  from  his  pipe  lights  up  his  own  features 
and  the  young  people  in  the  foreground  —  the  hero  and  the 
heroine  of  the  poem.  The  picture,  with  its  deep  shadows  and 
its  one  dash  of  light  in  the  center,  might  be  painted  by  a 
disciple  of  the  great  master  of  light  and  shade,  Rembrandt. 

IV.  The  conclusion  of  the  poem. 

When  Longfellow  sent  the  poem  to  his  publisher,  it  ended 
as  follows :  — 

Line  360.  How  beautiful  she  is!  How  still 

She  lies  within  these  arms  that  press 
Her  form  with  many  a  soft  caress! 
Modelled  with  such  perfect  skill, 
Fashioned  with  such  watchful  care! 
But,  alas!  oh,  what  and  where 
Shall  be  the  end  of  thing  so  fair? 
Wrecked  upon  some  treacherous  rock, 
Or  rotting  in  some  noisome  dock, 
Such  the  end  must  be  at  length 
Of  all  this  loveliness  and  strength. 

They  who  with  transcendent  power 
Build  the  great  cathedral  tower, 
Build  the  palaces  and  domes, 
Temples  of  God  and  Princes'  homes, 
These  leave  a  record  and  a  name. 
But  he  who  builds  the  stately  ships, 


160         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  palaces  of  sea  and  air, 
When  he  is  buried  in  his  grave 
Leaves  no  more  trace  or  mark  behind 
Than  the  sail  does  in  the  wind, 
Than  the  keel  does  in  the  wave. 
He  whose  dextrous  hand  could  frame 
All  this  beauty,  all  this  grace, 
In  a  grave  without  a  name 
Lies  forgotten  of  his  race. 
See  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  Appendix  V. 

The  publisher  objected  to  this  "sad"  ending,  and  the  poet 
wisely  consented  to  change  it.  It  is  entirely  out  of  harmony 
with  the  poem  as  a  whole,  which  tells  of  glad  activity  and 
successful  achievement.  It  would  not  do  to  conclude  such  a 
poem  by  a  cynical  arraignment  of  the  world  for  neglecting  its 
ship-architects,  to  say  nothing  of  the  false  statement  that  it 
has  preserved  the  names  of  all  its  great  builders  of  churches 
and  palaces.  Moreover,  the  day  of  marriage  and  of  launching 
the  ship  is  a  day  for  congratulation,  not  for  foretelling  evil. 
And  the  prophecy  of  disaster  or  decay  for  the  ship  foretells 
evil  for  the  bride,  so  closely  have  the  two  been  related  through 
out  the  poem.  We  are  glad,  therefore,  that  the  poet  changed 
lines  360-376  to  an  expression  of  good  wishes  for  ship  and 
bride.  But  two  of  these  new  lines  (366,  367)  are  difficult  to 
understand.  They  are  in  a  paragraph  referring  to  the  ship, 
but  they  cannot  possibly  relate  to  the  ship;  neither  are  they 
coherently  related  to  what  is  said  of  the  bride  in  the  next 
paragraph.  Lines  375  and  376,  also,  seem  to  be  rather  irrele 
vant  here.  The  final  paragraph,  fine  as  it  is  and  much  as  we 
admire  it,  is  national  in  its  reference,  has  no  thought-connec 
tion  with  the  rest  of  the  poem,  and  does  not  truly  belong  to  it. 
It  is  joined  by  means  of  the  word  Union  (see  also  line  104)  and 
by  a  continuation  of  the  figure,  used  so  extensively  through 


HENRY   WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  161 

the  poem  proper,  applying  to  human  life  terms  of  the  ship 
and  the  sea.  Think  of  the  dangers  that  beset  our  nation  in 
1849,  when  this  poem  was  written,  and  explain  the  paragraph 
in  detail.  For  remarks  on  the  political  significance  of  these 
lines,  see  Austin's  Longfellow,  page  315.  The  Master  and  the 
Workmen  are  doubtless  the  men  who  worked  out  our  national 
constitution.  What  man  do  you  suppose  to  be  the  "Mas 
ter"?  Name  some  of  the  "  Workmen."  Some  one  has  sug 
gested  that  " Master"  (line  382)  may  mean  the  Spirit  of 
Liberty,  and  that  the  founders  of  our  government  may  be 
the  " workmen"  under  that  inspiration.  These  concluding 
lines  were  favorites  of  President  Lincoln.  See  "  Lincoln's 
Imagination,"  by  Noah  Brooks,  in  Scribner's  Monthly,  Au 
gust,  1879. 

V.  Study  the  musical  effects  of  the  poem:  end  rime,  in 
ternal  rime,  repetition,  alliteration,  assonance,  onomatopoea. 
There  is  no  regular  line  and  stanza,  but  there  is  poetic  rhythm 
of  the  most  musical  sort,  and  considerable  regularity  in  the 
meter.    The  short  lines  quicken  the  action,  and  the  longer 
ones  make  it  slower.    Are  these  devices  used  in  the  poem  in 
harmony  with  the  thought?    Mr.  George  S.  Hillard  wrote  to 
Longfellow:  "I  think  that  you  deal  most  happily  with  that 
irregular  and  varying  stanza,  which  sinks  and  swells  under 
your  hand,  to  my  ear,  like  the  gusts  of  a  summer  wind  through 
a  grove  of  trees."     (Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  II,  166.) 

The  poem  is  divided  according  to  topics  into  paragraphs; 
it  has  no  stanza-structure. 

VI.  Prepare  to  read  the  poem  aloud.    Try  to  express  all 
Longfellow  wishes  us  to  think  and  feel  in  reading  it,  and  bring 
out  the  music  of  the  lines.    Find  in  Longfellow's  Journal  for 
February  12,  1850,  the  account  of  Mrs.  Kemble's  reading  of 
the  poem.    (See  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  II,  172). 


162         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Longfellow's  poem  is  the  best  of  the  imitations  of  Schiller's 
Song  of  the  Bell,  described  in  Thomas's  Life  and  Works  of  Schiller. 
"The  bell-founder  is  an  idealist  with  a  feeling  for  the  dignity  of 
man  and  of  man's  handiwork.  As  he  orders  his  workmen  to  per 
form  the  successive  operations  involved  in  the  casting  of  a  bell, 
he  delivers,  from  the  depths  of  his  larger  experience,  a  little  homily, 
suggested  in  each  case  by  the  present  stage  of  the  labor.  The 
master's  orders  are  given  in  a  lively  trochaic  measure,  while  the 
homilies  move  at  a  slower  gait  in  iambic  lines  of  varying  length. 
The  fiction  is  handled  with  scrupulous  attention  to  technical  de 
tails,  and  is  made  to  yield  at  the  same  time  a  series  of  easy  and  natu 
ral  starting-points  for  a  poetic  review  of  life  from  the  cradle  to  the 
grave.  The  great  charm  of  the  Song  lies  in  its  vivid  pictures  of  the 
epochs,  pursuits,  and  occurrences  which  constitute  the  joy  and 
woe  of  life  for  an  ordinary  industrious  burgher.  Childhood  and 
youth;  the  passion  of  the  lover,  sobering  into  the  steadfast  love  of 
the  husband;  the  busy  toil  of  the  married  pair  in  field  and  household; 
the  delight  of  accumulation  and  possession;  the  horrors  of  revolu 
tionary  fanaticism;  the  benediction  of  civic  concord,  —  these  are 
the  themes  that  are  brought  before  us  in  a  series  of  stirring  pictures 
that  are  irresistibly  fascinating." 

Dr.  Thomas's  statement  about  Schiller's  meter  is  suggestive  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  Longfellow's  meter.  And  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  Schiller's  poem  leads  up  to  the  political  condition 
of  Europe  in  1800,  when  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution  and 
the  international  complications  rising  out  of  it  were  uppermost  in 
the  thought  of  every  European.  Longfellow  closes  with  a  reference 
to  the  alarming  political  conditions  in  America  in  1849. 

For  the  influence  of  Horace  on  the  last  stanza  of  Longfellow's 
poem,  see  William  Everett's  "  The  Ship  of  State  and  the  Stroke  of 
Fate  "  (Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  76,  pp.  18-23;  July,  1895),  where  the 
critic  shows  Longfellow's  indebtedness  to  the  Fourteenth  Ode  of  the 
First  Book  of  Horace.  Horace  (B.  C.  65-8)  is  probably  expressing 
his  fear  that  the  dangers  of  civil  strife  are  not  yet  past  for  Rome, 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  163 

the  rule  of  Augustus  being  at  this  time  not  acceptable  to  all  the  Ro 
man  parties.    The  following  is  Conington's  translation  of  the  Ode. 

O  luckless  bark!  new  waves  will  force  you  back 
To  sea.    O  haste  to  make  the  haven  yours! 
E'en  now,  a  helpless  wrack, 
You  drift,  despoiled  of  oars; 

The  Afric  gale  has  dealt  your  mast  a  wound; 
Your  sailyards  groan,  nor  can  your  keel  sustain, 
Till  lash'd  with  cables  round, 
A  more  imperious  main. 

Your  canvas  hangs  in  ribbons,  rent  and  torn; 
No  gods  are  left  to  pray  to  in  fresh  need. 
A  pine  of  Pontus  born 
Of  noble  forest  breed, 

You  boast  your  name  and  lineage  —  madly  blind, 
Can  painted  timbers  quell  a  seaman's  fear? 
Beware!  or  else  the  wind 

Makes  you  its  mock  and  jeer. 

Your  trouble  late  made  sick  this  heart  of  mine, 
And  still  I  love  you,  still  am  ill  at  ease. 
O,  shun  the  sea,  where  shine 
The  thick-sown  Cyclades. 

Quintilian  says  that  Horace  refers  "in  allegory"  to  the  "ship  of 
state,"  in  which  case  Longfellow's  metaphor  is  the  same;  and  his 
diction  is  strikingly  similar. 

THE  HANGING  OF  THE  CRANE 

I.  The  story  of  the  origin  of  this  poem  explains  in  great 
measure  its  form  and  diction.  Longfellow  was  calling  on  a 
younger  poet,  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich,  who  had  just  mar 
ried.  As  they  stood  in  the  dining-room  door,  Mr.  Longfellow 


164         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

remarked  to  his  friend  that  the  small  round  table  would  need 
to  be  enlarged  year  by  year  as  children  should  come  into  the 
family;  and  that  later,  when  the  "young  guests"  should 
grow  up  and  make  homes  of  their  own,  the  table  would  close 
again  and  the  two  original  members  of  the  family  be  left 
alone  once  more.  Thus  the  "sweet  and  pathetic  poem  of  the 
fireside"  was  suggested  to  Longfellow.  (See  the  Riverside 
Edition  of  the  poem) . 

The  title  of  the  poem  refers  to  an  old  custom  equivalent  to 
our  " house-warming."  As  the  last  preparation  for  the 
occupancy  of  the  new  home,  neighbors  and  friends  gathered 
in  it  and  placed  the  crane  in  the  fireplace.  The  work  of  the 
housekeeper  could  then  begin,  and  the  family  life  could  be 
taken  up  regularly.  (For  a  fireplace  containing  the  crane,  see 
the  picture  of  the  Whittier  kitchen,  page  190). 

II.  At  first  reading  one  can  easily  discover  the  general 
structure  of  the  poem.  Part  I  is  introductory,  and  represents 
the  poet  as  remaining  after  the  guests  have  spoken  their 
good  wishes  and  departed,  and  as  sitting  before  the  fire  to 
dream  about  the  coming  life  of  the  family  just  established. 
The  other  six  parts  contain  the  six  pictures  of  home  life  that 
drift  through  the  mind  of  the  dreamer,  and  carry  the  founders 
of  the  family  in  his  imagination  from  youth  to  old  age.  The 
table  is  represented  as  the  gathering  place,  partly  from  the 
suggestion  of  Longfellow's  words  to  Aldrich,  and  partly 
because  the  entire  family  meets  more  often  at  the  table  than 
anywhere  else.  Each  picture  is  preceded  by  a  prelude  of  six 
lines.  This  breaking  of  the  poem  by  preludes  would  not  be 
good  in  a  continuous  narrative  or  description,  but  is  an 
excellent  device  for  keeping  separate  a  series  of  six  pictures 
scattered  over  a  period  of  fifty  years.  Tell  what  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  family  each  picture  describes. 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  165 

III.  After  you  thoroughly  understand  the  general  plan  of 
the  poem,  study  it  in  detail.  Do  not  pass  over  a  word  or 
an  expression  without  understanding  it  fully  and  recognizing 
its  force  in  the  poem.  The  following  notes  may  be  suggestive 
and  helpful. 

Lines  7-1 2:  Who  speaks  these  lines?  See  line  13.  Explain 
the  simile  in  lines  10-12.  The  word  harmonious  refers  to 
the  old  belief  that  the  spheres,  revolving  in  their  places,  made 
music  of  ineffable  beauty.  Why  does  this  simile  exalt  the 
home? 

Lines  17-22:  The  prelude  to  the  first  picture  speaks 
of  the  character  and  transitoriness  of  the  pictures  that 
drift  through  the  poet's  mind.  Explain  the  simile  in 
lines  21-22. 

Line  31 :  Explain  the  simile. 

Lines  37-42:  The  prelude  to  the  second  picture  indicates 
that  the  picture  has  changed.  Explain  the  figure.  The 
"door"  is  that  of  the  dining-room. 

Lines  43-72:  The  diction  of  this  part  is  governed  largely 
by  the  comparison  of  the  adored  and  indulged  baby  to  a 
monarch.  Make  a  list  of  the  words  brought  into  the  poem 
on  account  of  this  comparison.  The  baby  is  finally  compared 
to  King  Canute,  who  was  obeyed  implicitly  by  his  subjects, 
but  whose  word  had  no  power  over  the  tide  of  the  sea.  Find 
the  story  in  your  English  History.  Why  is  the  nurse  com 
pared  to  the  sea?  And  why  are  the  adjectives  in  line  69 
applied  to  her?  Other  words  in  this  part  which  should  be 
associated  are  angel  (line  45)  and  celestial  (line  52).  Enter 
tain  and  guest  go  back  to  Longfellow's  words  to  Aldrich. 
What  line  refers  to  the  old  proverb,  "Speech  is  silvern,  but 
silence  is  golden"?  Is  the  playful  tone  good  in  the  descrip 
tion  of  this  picture? 


166         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Lines  73-78 :  The  prelude  to  the  third  picture  refers  to  the 
change  of  pictures  in  the  poet's  mind,  and  contains  two  beau 
tiful  similes  taken  from  nature.  Explain  the  figures. 

Lines  79-99:  The  comparison  of  the  children  to  royal 
persons  is  continued  in  this  picture;  what  words  are  intro 
duced  because  of  this  comparison?  Observe  the  difference 
between  the  life  and  energy  of  the  boy  in  III  and  the  beauty 
of  the  little  girl  hi  IV.  Explain  the  simile  in  lines  92-96. 
The  last  three  lines  of  this  part  lead  forward  to  the  responsi 
bilities  and  cares  that  must  come  into  the  lives  of  these 
children  later  on. 

Lines  100-105:  This  prelude  recalls  the  two  figures  used  in 
prelude  IV;  explain  exactly  how.  It  then  looks  forward  to  the 
picture  that  follows  (line  103).  This  is  the  first  of  the  pre 
ludes  to  anticipate  the  picture;  the  others  (except  for  a  mere 
reference  in  prelude  III)  have  simply  indicated  the  fact  of 
change.  Explain  the  simile  in  lines  104-105. 

Lines  106-129:  For  the  reference  to  Ariadne  (lines  107- 
109)  see  your  book  on  Greek  mythology.  Lines  113-115: 
The  hopes  and  fears  which  the  maidens  are  too  shy  to  express 
are  compared  in  simile  to  birds  afraid  to  leave  their  nests. 
Lines  116-125:  The  young  men  of  the  family  are  compared  to 
knights  of  old,  who  went  out  seeking  adventure.  Or  they 
may  be  in  pursuit  of  some  ambition,  which  they  will  not  give 
up  though  they  find  it  hard  to  attain.  The  " lyric  muse" 
that  frequents  the  solitudes  represents  the  emotions  —  feel 
ings  one  may  express  if  he  can,  b\\t  which  he  must  bear  alone. 
Their  high  expectations  are  referred  to  in  line  126;  hope  and 
desire  alternating  with  fear  and  discouragement  in  line  127; 
the  fact  that  work  and  hope  make  life  worth  living  is  sug 
gested  in  lines  128,  129. 

Lines  130-135:  This  prelude  indicates  the  passage  of  a 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  167 

considerable  interval  of  time  between  part  V  and  this  part. 
Explain  the  figure  used. 

Lines  136-162:  "The  magician's  scroll"  was  a  parchment 
that  granted  wishes  for  its  possessor,  but  shrank  with  every 
wish.  See  Balzac,  Le  Peau  de  Chagrin  (translated  into 
English  under  the  title  The  Magic  Skin).  Refer  line  142  to 
line  108.  What  have  the  two  sons  of  the  family  become? 

Lines  163-168:  This  prelude  contains  a  beautiful  descrip 
tion  of  nature.  Explain  the  simile  in  line  167,  and  the  word 
ring;  explain  the  personifications  in  line  166. 

Lines  169-198:  Lines  169-171  utilize  in  metaphor  the 
description  in  the  prelude,  speaking  of  life  in  terms  of  nature. 
This  closing  part  is  remarkable  for  the  way  in  which  it 
gathers  up  the  earlier  parts,  and  rounds  the  poem  into  rhe 
torical  completeness.  Compare  line  173  with  line  1;  line  175 
with  line  2;  lines  182,  183  with  line  108;  line  185  with  line  49; 
line  186  with  line  27;  line  187  with  line  7;  line  188  with 
line  13.  The  simile  in  lines  194,  195  refers  to  the  number  of 
the  descendants,  children  and  grandchildren. '  The  figure  in 
lines  196-198  refers  to  the  apparent  endlessness  of  the  home 
the  parents  have  founded,  one  generation  following  another 
in  their  imagination,  through  ages  to  come. 

IV.  Study  the  meter  and  rime-plan  of  the  poem.     The 
preludes  are  all  regular;  state  their  length,  their  line-structure, 
and  their  stanza-structure.    The  lines  describing  the  pictures 
are  shorter  and  therefore  more  animated.    Name  the  meter. 
What  can  you  say  of  the  rime?    Study  the  poem  for  allitera 
tion,  assonance,  and  other  devices  for  securing  melody  and 
harmony. 

V.  Discuss  the  feeling  the  author  shows  in  each  picture, 
and  the  tone  he  gives  the  description  of  each. 

VI.  The  poem  as  a  whole  is  quiet  and  meditative  —  it  is  a 


168         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

series  of  six  dream  pictures.  The  poet  writes  tenderly,  as  one 
who  has  lived  through  these  scenes  and  loves  the  memory 
of  them.  This  poem  would  earn  for  Longfellow  the  title  of 
"Poet  of  the  Home  and  the  Fireside/'  if  he  had  no  other 
claim  upon  it.  The  poem  is  true  to  life,  inspires  the  imagina 
tion,  and  pleases  the  artistic  sense  by  its  beauty  of  expression. 
Read  it  once  more,  this  time  aloud,  that  you  may  enjoy  the 
harmonious  whole  and  the  charm  of  its  music. 


MORITURI  SALUTAMUS 

I.  As  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  graduation  of  the 
class  of  1825  of  Bowdoin  College  approached,  Longfellow 
was  invited  to  honor  the  occasion  with  a  poem.    He  disliked 
to  write  "occasional"  poems,  and  hesitated  to  accept  the 
invitation.    But,  on  seeing  a  copy  of  Gerome's  picture,  he 
received  an  inspiration,  and  in  ten  days  he  had  composed 
what  has  been  called  "the  grandest  hymn  to  old  age  ever 
written."     Gerome's  picture  represents   gladiators  in  the 
Roman    arena   saluting   the   emperor   before   the   combat. 
"Hail,  Ca3sar,  Emperor!    Those  about  to  die  salute  thee," 
are  their  words.     Longfellow's  title  means,  "We,  about  to 
die,   salute"  —  a  very  appropriate  title  for  an  old  man's 
"hymn  to  old  age."     The  Latin  couplet  from  Ovid  is  also 
appropriate : 

Seasons  slip  away,  and  we  grow  old  with  the  silent  years; 
And  days  course  by,  no  bridle  restraining. 

II.  Read  the  poem  with  the  following  outline:  — 

1.  Introduction  —  explanation  of  the  title,  and  references 
to  the  picture:  lines  1-4. 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  169 

2.  Poem  proper:  lines  5ff. 

a.  Salutation   to   the   College   and   its   surroundings: 

lines  5ff. 

b.  Salutation  to  the  memory  of  the  teachers,  only  one 

of  whom  is  living:  lines  23ff. 

c.  Salutation   and    advice   to    the    present    students: 

lines  60ff. 

d.  Address  to  classmates  of  1825:  lines  114ff. 

(1)  Words   in   memory   of   classmates   dead:   lines 

114ff. 

(2)  Difficulty  of  speech  in  face  of  memory  and  emo 

tion:  lines  128ff. 

(3)  Fifty  years  of  life  described  under  the  metaphor 

of  a  set  of  books :  lines  148ff . 

(4)  A  moral  tale,  from  the  Gesta  Romanorum,  story 

CVII:  lines  170ff. 

(a)  Introduction:  lines  170ff. 

(b)  The  clerk  and  the  treasure:  lines  178ff. 

(c)  The  moral  of  the  allegory:  lines  218ff. 

(5)  Application  of  the  moral :  lines  236ff . 

(a)  Much  has  been  done  by  old  men :  lines  238ff . 

(b)  Age  deprives  men  of  power:  lines  254ff. 

(c)  But  there  are   opportunities   in   age   which 

every  man  should  improve :  lines  272ff . 
The  moral  thought  of  the  poem  grows  out  of  the  story  of 
the  clerk.  The  clerk  represents  the  scholar  who,  for  worldly 
gain  or  ambition,  forsakes  his  study,  his  simple  life,  his  high 
ideals.  Longfellow  exhorts  his  classmates  to  keep  up  the 
life  of  the  mind,  scholastic  interests  and  occupations  till 
"the  evening  twilight"  has  faded  quite  away.  This  thought 
and  exhortation  remind  us  of  Tennyson's  lines  (Ulysses. 
lines  50-59): 


170         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Old  age  hath  yet  his  honor  and  his  toil; 

Death  closes  all:  but  something  ere  the  end, 

Some  work  of  noble  note,  may  yet  be  done, 

Not  unbecoming  men  that  strove  with  gods. 

Tho'  much  is  taken,  much  abides;  and  tho' 

We  are  not  now  that  strength  which  in  old  days 

Moved  earth  and  heaven,  that  which  we  are,  we  are; 

One  equal  temper  of  heroic  hearts, 

Made  weak  by  time  and  fate,  but  strong  in  will 

To  strive,  to  seek,  to  find,  and  not  to  yield. 

How  old  was  Longfellow  when  he  wrote  this  poem?  What 
literary  work  did  he  do  later?  Do  you  think  he  followed  his 
own  exhortation? 

III.  Study  the  poem  in  detail.  Explain  everything  in 
the  least  difficult  in  diction  and  figures.  The  following  notes 
may  help  you  in  some  of  the  harder  passages  and  some  of  the 
more  obscure  allusions. 

Lines  14,  15:  Imperial  and  sovereign  are  suggested  by  the 
Csesar  of  Gerome's  picture. 

Line  30:  The  one  teacher  left  was  Professor  A.  S. 
Packard. 

Line  34 :  Dante;  see  Inferno  XV,  lines  82-87.  His  teacher 
was  Brunetto  Latini. 

Lines  52-59:  St.  Luke  19:12ff. 

Line  70:  Aladdin's  lamp,  when  rubbed,  would  call  up  a 
spirit,  which  would  grant  the  wish  of  the  possessor  of  the 
lamp.  See  The  Arabian  Nights.  Fortunatus  was  a  mediaeval 
worthy,  who  possessed  an  enchanted  purse  that  would  never 
become  empty. 

Line  75:  St.  Matthew  17:20. 

Line  78:  Priam,  King  of  Troy.  See  Iliad  III,  145-155. 
Lines  88,  89:  Greek  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war,  eagerly  watched 
by  the  old  Trojans  because  of  their  famous  deeds.  So  the 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  171 

aged  graduates  of  the  college  watch  the  present  students. 
The  simile  "like  grasshoppers"  is  Homer's. 

Line  90:  I  Kings  20:11.  What  warning  and  advice  has 
Longfellow  for  the  young  men? 

Line  97:  See  Greek  mythology  for  the  story  of  Marsyas. 

Line  101:  "Be  bold,"  etc.  See  Spenser's  Faery  Queen, 
Book  III,  Canto  XI,  Stanza  54. 

Line  104:  Hector,  bravest  of  the  Trojans,  was  slain  in 
battle.  The  dandy  Paris  fled  from  his  foe.  Which  do  we 
honor  more? 

Line  109:  The  names  of  deceased  graduates  are  marked 
with  asterisks  in  college  catalogues. 

Line  165:  Longfellow  exhorts  his  classmates  to  turn  from 
the  past  to  the  future.  His  exhortation  forecasts  the  moral 
of  the  story  that  follows. 

Line  184:  A  clerk  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  a  student. 

Line  219:  Ghostly  means  "spiritual." 

Line  220:  The  Gesta  Romanorum  was  a  set  of  short  stories 
and  anecdotes  with  morals.  It  was  often  used  by  the  mediae 
val  clergy  as  a  store-house  of  illustrative  material.  This  tale 
would  have  been  appropriate  as  an  illustration  in  a  sermon 
on  avarice. 

Line  235:  Vanity  means  a  desire  to  attract  attention,  to 
win  admiration. 

Lines  240ff. :  Cato  was  a  Roman  statesman  and  philosopher 
(second  and  third  century  B.  C.).  Sophocles  was  a  Greek 
tragedian  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  Simonides  was  a  Greek 
poet  of  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  Theophrastus  was  a 
disciple  of  Aristotle;  his  thirty  short,  lively  character-sketches 
were  models  for  the  English  sketches  of  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury  by  Hall,  Overbury,  etc.  Chaucer,  the  great  English 
poet,  died  in  1400;  his  most  famous  work  was  The  Canterbury 


172         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Tales.  Goethe,  the  German  poet,  lived  from  1749  to  1832; 
his  greatest  work  was  Faust. 

Lines  278-280:  See  lines  241,  242,  246-7;  Sophocles, 
Simonides,  and  Chaucer. 

Lines  282-285:  Compare  Browning's  statement  in  Rabbi 
Ben  Ezra,  about  the  wisdom  and  experience  of  old  age. 

IV.  The  poem  is  written  in  iambic  pentameter,  riming 
in  couplets.     Study  it  for  elements  producing  melody  and 
harmony. 

V.  The  anniversary  service  for  which  the  poem  was  written 
was  held  in  a  church  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  where  Bowdoin 
College  is  located.    Of  the  class  of  1825,  which  had  numbered 
thirty-seven,  thirteen  were  alive  in  1875,  and  twelve  were 
present  in  the  church.    The  poet's  voice  was  low  and  trem 
ulous  with  feeling,  but  was  distinctly  heard  in  all  parts  of  the 
room.     The  sight  of  the  venerable  poet  surrounded  by  his 
equally  aged  classmates  was  most  affecting.     Imagine  the 
scene.    Put  yourself  in  Longfellow's  place  —  the  place  of  an 
old  man  revisiting  the  scenes  of  his  youth.     Think  of  the 
changes,  of  the  losses  that  must  have  saddened  him.    Realize 
the  poise  of  character  of  the  man  who  could,  under  such 
overwhelming  memories,  determine  to  be  strong  to  the  end. 
Then  read  the  poem  as  you  think  Longfellow  read  it  at  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  class.     For  a  description  of  the 
reading  at  Bowdoin  College,  see  Underwood's  Longfellow, 
page  223. 

KERAMOS 

I.  The  title  of  this  poem  is  from  the  Greek,  and  means 
" potter."  The  word  ceramics,  which  we  often  see,  is  con 
nected  with  it,  and  means  "the  art  of  pottery."  About 
1876  there  was  in  America  a  great  interest  in  the  making 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  173 

and  decoration  of  pottery.  An  excellent  display  of  native 
pottery  had  been  exhibited  at  the  Centennial  Exposition 
at  Philadelphia  (1876),  and  many  books  had  been  written 
about  ceramics.  One  of  these  books,  says  the  poet's  brother, 
interested  Longfellow  in  the  history  of  ceramics,  and  inspired 
this  poem.  (See  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal,  II,  460).  "His 
memory  recalled  the  old  pottery,  still  standing  in  Portland, 
near  Deering's  Woods,  where  it  had  been  a  delight  of  his 
boyhood  to  stop  and  watch  the  bowl  or  pitcher  of  clay  rise 
up  under  the  workman's  hand,  as  he  stood  at  his  wheel  under 
the  shadow  of  a  thorn-tree.  There,  within  doors,  amid  the 
shelves  of  pots  and  pans,  he  may  have  read  the  inscription 
upon  a  glazed  tile :  — 

'  No  handicraftman's  art  can  with  our  art  compare, 
We  potters  make  our  pots  of  what  we  potters  are.'  " 

Keramos  was  printed  in  Harper's  Magazine  for  December, 
1877.  If  possible,  the  class  should  consult  this  first  edition 
for  the  beauty  of  the  illustrations. 

II.  Read  the  poem  through  carefully  with  the  following 
outline : — 

1.  Introduction  —  a  picture  of  the  potter  at  his  work: 

lines  1-50. 

2.  Poem  proper:  while  the  potter  whistles  his  interlude, 

the  poet  visits  in  imagination  various  lands  in  which 
famous  pottery  is  made  or  has  been  made : 

a.  Holland:  lines  51-86. 

b.  France:  lines  94-127. 

c.  Majorica:  lines  134-145. 

d.  Italy:  lines  146-244. 

e.  Egypt:  lines  252-293. 

f.  China:  lines  301-348. 


174         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


g.  Japan:  lines  356-381. 

h.  The  poet  discusses  the  relation  of  Art  to  Nature: 

lines  382-399. 
3.  Conclusion  —  the  potter  stops  his  work  at  the  noon 

hour  of  rest  (lines  400-411). 

The  sight  of  the  potter  at  work  at  his  wheel  starts  the 
poet  to  thinking  of  what  he  knows  of  the  history  of  ceramics. 

His  meditation,  or 
"vision,"  to  which  the 
potter's  whistle  makes 
the  accompaniment,  is 
occasionally  interrupted 
by  the  potter's  song. 
A  stanza  of  the  song 
marks  the  change  from 
one  country  to  another. 
III.  The  constant 
turning  of  the  potter's 
wheel,  the  continual 
change  in  the  shape  of 
the  clay  in  the  potter's 
hands,  remind  •  the 
watching  poet  of  the 
mutability  of  all  things, 
material  and  spiritual. 
The  stanzas  of  the  pot 
ter's  song  supply  the 
moral  thought  of  the  poem,  and  all  discuss  change  and 
progress.  Put  them  together  into  one  song,  and  see  how  this 
thought  holds  them,  as  a  thread  holds  a  string  of  beads  to 
gether.  Even  the  two  stanzas  (4  and  6)  in  which  another 
thought  is  prominent,  begin  with  the  inevitable 


A  Potter  at  His  Wheel 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  175 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel. 

As  you  go  over  the  poem  in  detail,  you  will  notice,  also,  that 
certain  thoughts  in  the  potter's  stanzas  are  suggested  by  the 
context.  The  moral  and  spiritual  thoughts  are  properly 
expressed  in  metaphors  drawn  from  the  potter,  his  clay,  and 
the  processes  of  his  art. 

IV.  Study  the  poem  carefully  with  the  following  notes 
and  questions: — 

Lines  6,  7 :  The  hand  commands  the  moulding  of  the  clay, 
though  it,  too,  is  made  of  clay.  ( Job  33 : 6) . 

Lines  9ff. :  Refer  to  Longfellow's  brother's  remark  on  the 
pottery  at  Deering's  Woods,  and  discuss  the  fine  picture  in 
these  lines. 

Line  19:  A  conjurer  often  read  his  incantation  from  a  book, 
and  masked  his  face  with  a  false  beard. 

Lines  43,  44:  Explain  the  simile. 

Line  47:  See  lines  18-21.  For  motley  see  lines  11-17, 
and  the  "magician"  fancy  in  lines  18,  19. 

Lines  51ff. :  A  description  of  Holland.  Explain.  What 
town  is  most  important  for  manufacture  of  pottery?  Line  70 : 
The  Dutch  decorate  their  houses  with  blue  china.  What 
shapes  and  patterns  are  named  here?  About  the  fire-places 
are  tiles  with  pictures  on  them;  sometimes  a  long  story  is 
told  by  a  set  of  "painted  tiles."  Line  84:  Flowers  painted 
on  tiles. 

Lines  88,  89 :  How  finely  the  bud  and  leaf  unite  this  stanza 
to  the  "vision  "  (lines  84-86)! 

Line  97:  The  Charente  is  a  river  of  southern  France.  On 
it  is  the  town  of  Saintes,  the  home  of  the  great  potter  Palissy. 
Palissy  (16th  cen.)  experimented  to  invent  improvements 
in  the  glazing  of  pottery.  He  was  just  as  poor  as  Longfellow 
represents  him.  (See  Palissy  the  Potter  by  Morley.)  Com- 


176         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

pare  him  with  other  inventors  of  whose  poverty  and  perse 
verance  you  have  read. 

Line  130:  Isaiah  29:16.  "Surely  your  turning  of  things 
upside  down  shall  be  esteemed  as  the  potter's  clay :  for  shall 
the  work  say  of  him  that  made  it,  He  made  me  not?  or  shall 
the  thing  framed  say  of  him  that  framed  it,  He  had  no  under 
standing?"  See  also  Isaiah  45:9  and  Romans  9:20;  and 
Isaiah  64:8. 

Line  139:  Majorica  is  the  largest  of  the  Balearic  Islands, 
east  of  Spain.  Its  " softened"  Italian  name  is  Majolica, 
and  by  this  name  the  fine  pottery  produced  there  is  called. 

Line  147:  The  enchanter's  carpet  in  The  Arabian  Nights 
would  transport  the  man  who  sat  on- it  wherever  he  wished 
to  go.  See  the  tale  of  Prince  Houssain. 

Line  148 :  The  Mediterranean  between  Spain  and  Italy. 

Lines  152-157:  The  Italians,  as  well  as  the  Dutch,  deco 
rated  their  walls  with  tiles  and  pottery-ware.  Gubbio  is  a 
town  near  Perugia.  Faenza  is  near  Ravenna,  and  gave  its 
name  to  Faience-ware.  Pesaro  is  on  the  Adriatic.  All  these 
towns  were  celebrated  for  pottery,  Urbino  was  the  native 
town  of  the  great  painter  Raphael.  "Angelic  name,"  be 
cause  it  belonged  first  to  the  Archangel  Raphael.  See  Sacred 
and  Legendary  Art,  I,  by  Mrs.  Jameson.  Line  170:  Francesco 
Xanto  Arelli  do  Rovigo  (16th  cen.),  disciple  of  Raphael; 
worked  at  Urbino. 

Line  174:  Maestro  Georgio  Andreoli  (Gubbio,  16th  cen.) 
"used  foliated  scrolls  as  patterns,  and  terminated  them  in 
dolphins,  eagles,  masks,"  etc.  He  was  celebrated  for  golden 
and  ruby  lustres,  and  for  iridescent  ware  (see  "madre-perl," 
or  mother-of-pearl,  line  175).  A  celebrated  piece  shows  the 
portrait  of  "Cana  the  Beautiful,"  of  whom  nothing  is  known 
except  her  name  on  the  "scroll,"  or  name-place. 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  177 

Line  197:  Florence.  The  della  Robbia  family  (fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries)  were  great  artists  in  pottery.  Luca's 
most  famous  work  is  his  Singing  Boys,  (lines  200-204). 
Andrea's  Bambinos,  or  "babies/'  on  the  Foundling  Hospital 
at  Florence,  are  also  famous  (lines  205-211). 

Lines  212-225  refer  to  Luca's  monument  for  Bishop 
Benozzo  Federighi,  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco  da 
Paula,  between  Florence  and  Bellosguardo.  Is  the  church 
easy  to  find?  The  life-size  figure  of  the  bishop  is  made  of 
pottery.  Lines  222-223  compare  the  heat  of  the  potter's 
furnace  to  "  purgatorial  fires."  From  Longfellow's  descrip 
tion  try  to  get  an  accurate  mental  picture  of  the  tomb. 

Line  288:  Ausonian  means  "  Italian."  Line  229:  Those 
dug  up;  remains  of  old  Etruscan  cities.  Line  233:  The  pic 
tures  on  these  may  represent  private  sorrows,  or  (lines 
234-244)  classic  tales.  For  allusions  here,  see  mythology. 
"Alcides"  is  Hercules;  tell  the  story  of  his  adventure  with 
the  " Cretan  Bull."  "Aphrodite"  is  Venus,  and  her  "boy" 
is  Eros  (Cupid).  Tell  the  story  of  Helen  of  Troy.  Line  240: 
Southern  Italy  was  colonized  by  the  Greeks. 

Lines  253-260:  Explain  the  geographical  allusions  in 
these  lines,  and  the  metaphor  in  lines  258-260. 

Lines  258-260:  Is  this  metaphor  good  in  describing  the 
Nile?  Lines  264-268:  Many  of  the  early  Christian  hermits 
came  from  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes,  and  lived  in  the 
Egyptian  deserts.  Lines  269-273:  Description  of  Cairo. 
Lines  275-281:  See  the  story  of  "The  Forty  Thieves"  in 
The  Arabian  Nights.  Lines  282-293:  Patterns  on  Egyptian 
ware,  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  green  enamel.  Ammon, 
Emeth,  Osiris,  and  Isis  were  gods  and  goddesses;  see  mythol 
ogy.  The  lotus  is  the  flower  symbol  of  Egypt;  the  ibis,  or 
crane,  was  a  sacred  bird;  the  Scarabee  was  the  sacred  beetle. 


178         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  queen  celebrated  for  her  beauty; 
Shakespeare  has  told  of  her  great  political  influence  and  last 
days  in  his  Antony  and  Cleopatra.  Line  293:  Specimens 
of  ancient  Egyptian  ware  are  taken  chiefly  from  the  royal 
tombs  in  the  Pyramids. 

Line  296:  The  poet  has,  in  his  imagination,  visited  these 
races  in  Europe  and  in  Egypt. 

Line  302.  River  and  mountains  of  India.  Follow  the 
poet  on  the  map  and  see  what  " desert  sands,"  "gulf  and 
bay"  he  passes  over.  Line  303:  "Sing"  in  poetry. 

Line  304 :"  Cathay  "  is  China.  Line  306 :  The  chief  Chinese 
town  in  the  history  of  pottery.  What  does  the  simile  in 
lines  313,  314  tell  you  of  the  colors  of  Chinese  pottery? 
Compare  with  lines  320-324.  What  do  lines  315-319  tell 
you  of  the  production  of  pottery  in  China?  Line  326:  The 
"willow  pattern"  was  a  favorite  in  early  New  England. 
It  was  originally  Chinese;  there  may  be  one,  two,  or  three 
men  on  the  bridge,  but  the  form  with  one  man  is  most  com 
mon.  The  series  of  pictures  illustrates  a  pretty  Chinese 
romance.  Line  334:  Chinese  tiles  show  dragons  and  other 
fabulous  beasts  interesting  to  children.  The  dragon  is  impor 
tant  in  Chinese  mythology,  and  therefore  in  Chinese  art. 
Lines  338ff. :  This  celebrated  pagoda  was  an  octagon  two 
hundred  sixty  feet  high,  in  nine  stories.  It  was  of  fine  white 
porcelain  bricks,  and  the  stories  were  marked  by  green  tiles. 
The  summit  was  crowned  by  a  great  gilt  ball.  Five  pearls  on 
the  roof  served  as  good-luck  charms,  to  keep  off  floods,  fires, 
dust-storms,  tempests,  and  civil  wars.  From  the  eaves  of 
the  various  stories  hung  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  bells  and 
countless  colored  lanterns.  This  magnificent  pagoda  was 
destroyed  in  civil  war  in  1853. 

Line  359:  The  poet  in  his  magic  cloak  (line  147)  flies  above 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  179 

the  country,  and  sees  figures  common  in  Japanese  art.  Lines 
363-367:  Explain  the  metaphor.  Line  370:  The  sacred  moun 
tain  of  Japan,  Fujiyama,  often  appears  in  art.  Lines  378- 
379:  See  line  359.  Lines  368-379  enumerate  the  commonest 
characteristics  of  Japanese  art.  Lines  380,  381:  Where  do 
the  Japanese  get  their  patterns?  These  lines  lead  us  into 
the  next  thought-division  of  the  poem. 

Lines  382-399:  State  in  your  own  words  the  art-theory 
Longfellow  here  sets  forth.  Why  is  it  placed  here  after 
the  description  of  Japanese  art?  Give  illustrations.  From 
what  sources  have  the  art  patterns  mentioned  in  this  poem 
been  derived?  Do  you  agree  with  the  poet? 

Lines  400ff. :  The  conclusion  properly  attaches  itself  to 
the  introduction.  With  line  409  compare  line  30.  Explain 
the  life-thought  in  lines  415-418.  This  gives  "the  perfect 
round"  to  the  thought  of  the  poem  —  from  clay  to  art,  and 
back  to  clay. 

If  the  poem  can  be  illustrated  by  specimens  of  pottery  it  will  be 
far  more  interesting  and  vital  to  the  students. 


CHAPTER  XV 
JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life  and  Letters,  2  Vol.,  by  S.  T.  Pickard;  Boston,  1894. 

Whitlier-Land,  by  S.  T.  Pickard;  Boston,  1904. 

Life,  by  T.  W.  Higginson;  New  York,  1902. 

Life,  by  George  Rice  Carpenter;  Boston,  1903. 

Life,  by  F.  H.  Underwood;  Boston,  1884. 

Life,  by  W.  S.  Kennedy;  Boston,  1883. 

Life,  by  Richard  Burton;  Boston,  1901. 

Life,  by  W.  J.  Linton;  London,  1893. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

The  New  Wife  and  the  Old,  Barclay  of  Ury,  The  Angels  of  Buena 
Vista,  Maud  Muller,  Barbara  Frietchie,  Skipper  Ireson's  Ride,  The 
Pipes  at  Lucknow,  The  Dole  of  Jarl  Thorkell,  The  Sisters,  The  Robin, 
Kathleen,  Mabel  Martin,  Marguerite,  King  Volmer  and  Elsie,  Conduc 
tor  Bradley,  King  Solomon  and  the  Ants,  The  Khan's  Devil,  The  Bay 
of  the  Seven  Islands,  The  Wishing  Bridge,  St.  Gregory's  Guest,  How 
the  Robin  Came,  Toussaint  L'Ouverture. 

And  see  Appendix  I,  titles  56  to  67  inclusive. 

TELLING  THE  BEES 

I.  See  Pickard,  Life,  II,  413-115;  Whittier-land,  17,  18. 
The  title  of  the  poem  refers  to  an  old  New  England  custom. 
When  a  member  of  a  family  died,  the  bees  were  informed  of  it, 
and  their  hives  were  draped  in  mourning;  otherwise  they 
would  swarm  and  seek  a  new  home. 

180 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  181 

The  picture  of  the  New  England  farm  house  is  that  of 
Whittier's  early  home.  Pickard  says: 

There  were  bee  hives  on  the  garden  terrace  near  the  well-sweep.  — 
The  approach  to  the  house  from  over  the  northern  shoulder  of  Job's  Hill 
by  a  path  that  was  in  constant  use  in  his  boyhood  and  is  still  in  existence, 
is  accurately  described  in  the  poem.  The  'gap  in  the  old  wall'  is  still 
to  be  seen,  and  'the  stepping  stones  in  the  shallow  brook'  are  still  in  use. 
His  sister's  garden  was  down  by  the  brook-side  in  front  of  the  house,  and 
her  daffodils  are  perpetuated  and  may  now  be  found  in  their  season  each 
year  in  that  place.  The  red-barred  gate,  the  poplars,  the  cattle  yard  with 
'the  white  horns  tossing  above  the  wall,'  these  were  all  part  of  Whittier's 
boy  life  on  the  old  farm. 

We  are  not  to  suppose,  however,  that  the  "Mary"  of  the 
poem  was  Whittier's  older  sister.  She  did  not  die  till  1860, 
and  the  poem  is  not  a  brother's  poem  (see  line  21).  Whittier 
has  merely  described,  as  the  setting  for  his  little  romance,  the 
farm  he  knew  best. 

II.  The  bereaved  lover,  a  year  after  Mary's  death  (line  13), 
is  walking  with  a  friend  toward  her  home.  "Here  is  the 
place,"  he  says,  "to  leave  the  highway  and  take  the  path  that 
leads  through  the  gap  in  the  wall,  across  the  stepping  stones, 
and  to  the  top  of  the  hill  from  which  Mary's  house  may  be 
seen."  A  little  farther  on  they  come  in  sight  of  the  house 
("There"  etc.).  Then  they  stop.  The  lover  points  out  the 
well-remembered  surroundings  of  the  farm  house,  and  tells 
his  friend  how,  just  a  year  ago,  returning  after  a  month's 
absence  (line  25),  he  had  been  informed,  by  the  old  custom, 
of  the  death  of  Mary.  The  story  is  told  with  the  simplicity, 
dignity,  and  reserve  of  a  New  Englander  of  the  class  to  which 
the  lover  is  supposed  to  belong.  In  spite  of  the  slightness  of 
the  action,  the  poet  puts  into  it  some  suspense  and  leads 
up  to  a  climax.  The  slight  narrative  begins  with  line  21.  As 


182         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  lover  approached  the  house,  he  stopped  at  the  brook  to 
cool  his  face,  for  it  was  a  warm  day  in  June.  At  last  he  came 
in  sight  of  the  house  (line  27) .  The  effect  on  him  of  the  first 
sight  of  the  hives  is  told  in  line  41.  But  the  lover  reassured 
himself;  of  course  the  death  must  be  that  of  the  oldest  mem 
ber  of  the  family  (lines  45-48) .  Line  49  mentions  an  ill-omen 
for  the  dog's  mistress.  The  fact  stated  in  lines  50,  51 
proved  to  the  lover  that  the  death  was  not,  as  he  had  sup 
posed,  that  of  the  aged  grand-father;  and  finally  he  heard  the 
words  that  confirmed  his  worst  premonitions.  The  natural 
approach  of  the  lover  to  the  house,  his  gradual  appreciation 
of  the  fact  that  something  had  happened,  his  alternate  hope 
and  fear,  his  final  certainty,  make  up  the  steps  of  the  slight, 
pathetic  narrative  from 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

III.  Study  the  style  of  the  poem. 

1.  Discuss  the  diction  of  the  poem:  the  use  of  specific 
nouns  in  description;  epithets;  poetic  compounds;  genitives 
for  o/-phrases;  etc. 

2.  Explain  the  force  of  the  following  figures: 

a.  The  simile  in  line  13; 

b.  The  metaphor  in  lines  18,  19,  comparing  the  sun's 

rays  among  the   branches   to   an  insect's  wings 
tangled  in  a  cob-web; 

c.  The  metaphor  in  lines  29,  30. 

3.  Versification:  How  many  lines  in  a  stanza?    How  many 
accents  in  each  line?    What  is  the  foot?    In  lines  3,  11,  14, 
15,  16  you  will  find  spondees.    These  retard  the  movement, 
and  prepare  for  the  pathetic  narrative.     What  is  the  rime- 
scheme  of  the  poem?     Discuss  the  use  of  alliteration;  of 
assonance;  of  internal  rime.    The  alliteration  of  s  in  lines  15, 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  183 

16,  17,  53,  54  is  particularly  good,  the  repetition  of  the 
spirant  suggesting  the  insistence  of  memory.  What  harmony 
of  sound  and  thought  in  the  line 

Heavy  and  slow? 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.  Bring  out  clearly  its  restrained 
pathos.  Imagine  that  you  are  the  lover,  telling  the  story  to  a 
friend.  Hear  all  the  time  in  your  ears  the  sound  of  the 
chore-girl's  song, 

Mistress  Mary  is  dead  and  gone! 

THE  HUSKERS 

I.  The  account  of  the  corn-picking  and  the  corn-husking 
furnish  the  poet  occasion  to  make  two  fine  descriptions:  one 
of  a  New  England  country  landscape  on  an  autumn  after 
noon,  the  other  of  an  evening  scene  by  lantern-light  in  the 
barn. 

Read  the  poem  first  with  the  following  outline :  — 

1 .  Introductory :  — 

a.  General  introduction:  time,  place,  preliminary  de 

scription. 

b.  Introductory  pictures: 

(1)  An  autumn  morning. 

(2)  An  autumn  mid-day. 

2.  The  autumn  afternoon,  and  the  corn-gathering. 

3.  Sunset  and  early  evening  —  transitional. 

4.  The  husking-bee. 

The  poem  is  written  in  four-line  stanzas,  each  line  having 
seven  feet  with  iambic  movement.  The  rime  is  aabb.  The 
melody  is  smooth  and  quiet. 


184         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

II.  Study  adjectives  and  epithets  used  to  describe  the 
season  in  the  first  stanza. 

Does  the  poet  describe  the  Indian  Summer  sunrise  and 
mid-day  correctly?  Observe  carefully  all  the  adjectives  in  the 
second  stanza. 

III.  Prepare  to  sketch,  on  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  the  land 
scape  described  in  stanzas  three  to  eight.    What  field  is  most 
important  in  this  poem?    Is  it  the  one  described  with  greatest 
minuteness  of  detail?    What  persons  does  it  contain?    What 
part  of  your  picture  should  it  occupy?    Where  will  you  put 
the  hills,  orchards,  meadows,  woods,  and  farm-buildings? 
What  signs  of  life  and  motion  in  the  picture?    Notice  the  ad 
jectives  and  epithets.    How  many  of  them  refer  to  color?    Are 
they  well-chosen?    What  color-words  do  you  find  that  are  not 
adjectives?     Why  should  color- words  be  so  prominent  in 
this  description?    The  metaphor  in  line  10  gives  the  Indian 
Summer  "atmosphere"  to  the  picture;  explain  it  clearly. 

IV.  The  description  of  sunset  (lines  31-36)  follows  that  of 
afternoon.    With  line  31  compare  lines  6  and  34.    Study  word 
by  word  the  glorious  picture  of  sunset  and  moon-rise  in  lines 
33-36. 

Lines  37-40  bring  the  farming  people  to  the  husking- 
frolic,  and  introduce  the  second  of  the  two  main  pictures  of 
the  poem. 

V.  The  interior  of  the  barn  is  described  as  the  background 
of  the  picture.    What,  as  main  object  of  interest,  should  oc 
cupy  the  center  foreground?     Who  are  gathered  about  the 
pile  of  corn?    What  persons  are  to  be  made  most  prominent 
in  this  group  of  young  people? 

From  the  lanterns  hanging  above  this  group  light  falls  par 
ticularly  on  the  pile  of  yellow  ears,  and  on  the  maiden  and 
the  master.  The  other  huskers  are  outside  the  brightest  cir- 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  185 

cle  of  light.  The  background  for  this  bright  center  is  the 
shadowy  barn,  where  sit  the  old  men.  Here  is  a  study  in 
light  and  shade  worthy  of  the  great  master,  Rembrandt. 

VI.  The  value  of  this  poem  is  in  its  pictures  of  New  Eng 
land  and  New  England  customs.    With  perfect  fidelity  and 
exquisite  expression  the  poet  leads  us  to  paint  in  our  imagina 
tion  scenes  familiar  to  his  boyhood,  and  rural  customs  fast 
passing  away.     For  its  truthfulness  and  simple  dignity, 
The  Huskers  deserved  to  be  esteemed  most  highly  among 
The  Songs  of  Labor.    What  other  industries  are  celebrated  in 
this  group  of  poems?    Discuss  the  Dedication. 

VII.  The  master's  Corn-Song  has  shorter  lines  than  The 
Huskers,  and  this  gives  it  a  more  animated  lyric  character. 
The  lines  contain  alternately  four  and  three  iambic  feet. 
The  rime  is  abab.    Corn  is  compared  with  and  preferred  to  the 
fruits  of  tropic  lands  (lines  57-64).    It  is  preferred  even  to 
other  products  of  our  own  latitude   (lines  93-104).     The 
raising  of  the  corn  is  described  (lines  65-84),  and  the  meal 
is  praised  (lines  81-82). 

Discuss  the  epithets  used  in  The  Corn-Song.  Autumn  is 
personified  and  represented  as  bearing  a  horn  of  plenty 
(lines  55,  56);  possibly  the  poet  had  in  mind  the  Roman  god 
dess  Ceres.  What  metaphor  in  line  76?  In  line  88?  The 
color  of  the  corn  suggests  frequent  comparison  to  gold,  and 
that  leads  us,  by  metonymy,  to  wealth  in  general.  See 
lines  53,  54,  55,  80,  84,  96,  103. 

THE  ETERNAL  GOODNESS 

I.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  best  of  Whittier's  religious  poems. 
The  student  will  appreciate  better  its  spirit  if  he  first  will 
read  Jonathan  Edwards'  sermon  on  Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an 
Angry  God  (Stedman  and  Hutchinson  II). 


186         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

The  God  that  holds  you  over  the  pit  of  hell,  much  as  one  holds  a 
spider  or  other  loathsome  insect  over  the  fire,  abhors  you,  and  is  dread 
fully  provoked:  his  wrath  towards  you  burns  like  fire;  he  looks  upon 
you  as  worthy  of  nothing  else,  but  to  be  cast  into  the  fire;  he  is  of  purer 
eyes  than  to  bear  to  have  you  in  his  sight;  you  are  ten  thousand  times 
more  abominable  in  his  eyes  than  the  most  hateful  venomous  serpent  is 
in  ours.  .  .  .  O  sinner!  Consider  the  fearful  danger  you  are  in:  it  is  a 
great  furnace  of  wrath,  a  wide  and  bottomless  pit,  full  of  the  fire  of 
wrath,  that  you  are  held  over  in  the  hand  of  that  God,  whose  wrath  is 
provoked  and  incensed  as  much  against  you  as  against  many  of  the 
damned  in  hell.  You  hang  by  a  slender  thread,  with  the  flames  of 
divine  wrath  flashing  about  it,  and  ready  every  moment  to  singe  it  and 
burn  it  asunder. 

The  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism,  too,  will  give  some 
notion  of  the  elaborate  system  of  Calvinistic  theology  that 
ruled  New  England  in  earlier  days.  The  Quakers  were  a 
liberal  sect,  and  opposed  to  the  iron-bound  creed  of  the 
orthodox  New  England  churches. 

For  the  influence  of  the  Bible  on  Whittier,  see  Pickard, 
Life,  I,  37. 

II.  The  poem  is  addressed  to  Whittier 's  Calvinistic 
neighbors.  Read  it  with  the  following  notes. 

Lines  3,  4:  What  virtues  have  these  Calvinists? 

Lines  5,  6 :  The  strong  point  in  the  creed  is  its  unanswerable 
logic. 

Lines  7,  8 :  What  is  Whittier's  attitude  toward  this  system 
of  theology? 

Lines  9,  10:  Explain.    Why  "iron"  ? 

Lines  13,  14:  This  theology  explains  the  purposes  of  the 
Creator,  and  his  "Plan  of  Salvation." 

Lines  17,  18:  See  Exodus  3:5.  The  bare  feet  symbolized 
reverence. 

Line  20 :  What  divine  qualities  does  Whittier  emphasize  — 
regard  as  measureless?  Line  21:  What  quality  did  the 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  187 

Calvinists  place  most  stress  on?  Line  23:  They  seek  one  to 
give  them  laws  and  commandments;  the  Quaker  poet  desires 
only  healing  of  spirit.  Matthew  9:20;  27:35. 

Line  25:  See  Genesis  3:16-19.  For  line  27  see  Matthew 
5 : 3-11 ;  for  line  28  see  Luke  23 : 24. 

Line  29:  Does  Whittier  regard  himself  as  undeserving  of 
eternal  punishment?  Line  36:  He  has  no  " claim"  through 
merit  on  divine  mercy.  Line  37:  Whittier  is  not  trying  to 
pretend  that  there  is  no  sin  in  this  world.  Line  42:  Explain 
the  figure.  Line  44:  To  what  divine  attribute  does  Whittier 
fasten  his  hope? 

Line  45:  See  Isaiah  6:1-5.  Line  47:  Since  love  is  the  best 
feeling  that  can  possibly  enter  the  human  heart,  hate  is  the 
worst.  How,  then,  can  a  Divine  Being  cherish  the  hate  that 
Edwards  describes  in  his  sermon?  Line  49:  The  sin  of  hate. 

Line  55:  See  Psalms  19:10. 

Line  57:  Whittier  holds  his  faith  in  the  midst  of  sorrow 
and  affliction;  and  (lines  61-64)  in  spite  of  any  trouble  that 
may  come  into  his  life.  • 

Line  65:  No  trouble  will  come  to  him  that  he  will  not  be 
given  strength  to  bear.  Isaiah  42 : 3. 

Line  69:  "I  have  no  merit."  Line  71:  "Even  what  I  do 
for  others  is  simply  transferring  a  gift  He  has  given  me." 

Line  73-80:  Do  not  miss  the  point  of  this  beautiful 
metaphor. 

Line  81 :  See  Line  1.    His  belief  differs  greatly  from  theirs. 

Line  88:  His  is  a  religion  of  the  heart,  not  of  the  head. 

III.  Read  the  poem  aloud. 

SNOW-BOUND 

I.  Snow-Bound  is  a  poem  of  rural  New  England  in  winter. 
It  describes  a  heavy  snow-storm  and  the  appearance  of  the 


188         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

world  during  and  after  it.  It  tells  of  the  members  of  the 
snow-bound  household,  and  describes  their  amusements. 
It  is  written  "To  the  Memory"  of  this  household,  and  tells 
chiefly  of  those  who  have  gone.  Whittier's  brother  Matthew, 
therefore,  is  not  especially  prominent  in  the  poem,  being  alive 
at  the  time  of  writing.  The  poem  is  largely  descriptive  — 
"pictures  of  old  days"  (line  747).  Read  the  poem  thought 
fully,  for  its  general  plan  and  effect. 

II.  Why  is  the  poem  called  "A  Winter  Idyl"  ?    How  long 
did  the  storm  last  (lines  31,  41,  42,  46,  47,  93,  116)?    Can  you 
tell  what  days  of  the  week  were  stormy  (line  97)?     How 
long  was  the  family  snow-bound  (lines  674,  675)  ?    Pickard  de 
scribes  the  family  in  his  Life  of  Whittier  I,  27-36;  II,  771. 
See  Whittier-land  12,  24,  39,  74.    Show  how  the  quotations 
from  Cornelius  Agrippa  and  Emerson  make  an  appropriate 
preface  for  the  poem.     Find  on  a  map  of  Massachusetts 
the  location  of  Haverhill,  where  Whittier  spent  his  boy 
hood.    For  the  publication  of  the  poem,  alterations  made  in 
proof,  etc.,  see  Pickard  II,  494  to  505. 

III.  Study  the  poem  carefully  with  the  following  notes  and 
questions.    Observe,  without  special  direction,  the  excellence 
of  the  diction  (particularly  of  the  epithets)  and  the  beauty  of 
the  figures. 

Lines  1-18:  A  threatening  day,  before  the  breaking  of  the 
storm.  Notice  the  extreme  cold;  the  snow,  at  such  a  tempera 
ture,  will  be  dry  and  drift  easily.  With  line  15  compare  this 
note  from  Pickard's  Life  (I,  7) :  "The  roar  of  the  storm  waves 
breaking  on  Salisbury  Beach  is  heard  in  this  secluded  valley." 

Lines  19-30:  A  realistic  account  of  life  on  a  farm.  Ex 
plain  early  (line  27).  What  metaphor  in  helmet  and  chal 
lenge?  The  barn  is  described  in  Pickard  I,  18. 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER 


189 


Lines  31-40:  The  beginning  of  the  storm.  What  are 
the  snow-flakes  compared  to  in  the  metaphor  involved  in 
swarm,  whirl-dance,  winged? 

Lines  43-46  refer  to  the  shapes  of  snow-flakes.  Have 
you  ever  seen  any  under  the  microscope?  Starry  is  "star- 


:.,-^^^r^'«W 

A  Well,  Showing  the  Curb  and  the  Well-sweep 

shaped,"  and  the  word  suggests  meteor  (falling  star)  in 
the  next  line.  Wonder  (line  50)  is  "strange  thing."  What 
colors  are  in  the  picture  described  by  lines  50-54?  Line  60 : 
See  Pickard  I,  16.  Line  62 :  Draw  the  shape  of  a  Chinese 
roof.  See  Pickard,  II,  499.  Line  65:  The  white  marble 
Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  architecture. 
Imagine  the  well-sweep,  snow  covered,  as  leaning  over  the 
well-curb. 


190         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Line  66 :  What  sort  of  man  was  Whittier's  father?  Line  70 : 
What  are  buskins?  Lines  77-80:  You  can  read  of  Aladdin's 
cave  and  lamp  in  The  Arabian  Nights.  Line  86:  What 
figure  in  harem?  Line  89:  Amun  was  an  Egyptian  god 
with  the  head  of  a  ram. 

Line  97:  What  day  of  the  week  is  it?  Line  98:  Explain 
social.  See  Pickard,  Life,  I,  6.  Lines  101-105.  Notice 
the  effect  of  the  diction  and  figure;  could  any  expression  be 
more  dreary?  Line  110:  Minded  means  " noticed."  What 
figure  in  lines  112,  113?  What  excuse  in  the  next  lines  for 
the  personification? 

Line  118:  Note  the  metaphor.  Lines  122-128:  Study  the 
diction.  For  a  complete  word-picture  of  the  kitchen  see 
lines  129-131,  163-174.  Study  this  very  carefully,  word  by 
word;  and  study  with  it  the  photograph  of  the  kitchen.  See 
Pickard,  Life,  I,  19,  20.  The  world  outside  is  described  in 
lines  143-154.  It  is  a  picture  in  black  and  white.  Study  it 
carefully;  if  possible,  sketch  the  landscape.  Lines  132-142 
describe  the  reflection  of  the  kitchen  in  its  window.  Imagine 
the  scene  described  in  lines  143-154  as  the  general  background 
of  the  picture.  In  the  center  of  that,  place  the  dark  lilac-tree. 
Against  that,  imagine  the  red  reflection  of  the  fire.  Showed 
means  "  could  be  seen."  The  children  imagine  that  witches 
are  making  tea  about  this  mimic  flame.  Have  you  ever  seen 
so  plain  a  reflection  of  a  room  as  that  described  here? 

Line  179:  The  poet  leaves  the  memories  of  his  youth  and 
comes  back  to  the  moment  of  writing  the  poem,  when  he  is  a 
man  of  fifty-eight.  Line  183:  Matthew  Whittier  died  in 
1883;  the  poem  was  written  in  1865.  Line  204:  The  "stars" 
of  hope.  Cypress  trees  are  planted  on  graves.  The  hope 
is  named  in  lines  200-202.  Line  206 :  The  day  of  resurrection. 
Line  209:  Faith  is  an  instinct,  higher  than  the  knowledge 


THE   WHITTIER  BIRTHPLACE 


THE  WHITTIER  KITCHEN 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  191 

gained  by  sense  or  reason.  Line  210:  Life  will,  in  the  end, 
triumph  over  death,  and  our  "own"  will  be  restored  to  us. 
This  expression  of  grief  and  hope  is  one  of  the  eloquent  pas 
sages  of  the  poem. 

Line  212:  Sped  means  "made  it  go  fast."  Notice  the 
simple  home-amusements.  214:  The  name  of  the  "school- 
book"  was  The  American  Preceptor  (see  Pickard,  I,  39,  40); 
and  the  poem  was  Mrs.  Morton's  The  African  Chief.  In  those 
days  of  few  books,  children  knew  their  readers  by  heart. 
Lines  220-223  are  quoted  from  this  poem.  Life,  liberty,  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness  are,  to  an  American,  three  of  the 
first  and  natural,  as  well  as  the  inalienable,  rights.  Lines  216- 
219  refer  to  Whittier's  intense  interest  in  the  Anti-slavery 
cause.  The  Abolitionists  complained  that  Congress  favored 
the  slave  states  (line  217).  Telling  puzzles  and  riddles,  and 
"speaking  pieces"  was  the  entertainment  furnished  by  the 
children,  perhaps  by  the  boys,  since  they  are  not  otherwise 
mentioned. 

Line  224:  The  father  tells  stories  of  his  youthful  days. 
He  had  made  trips  to  Canada,  riding  on  horse-back  along 
Lake  Memphremagog  (see  map) .  He  had  visited  St.  Frangois 
in  the  province  of  Quebec,  whither  the  French  settlers  had 
brought  their  old  customs  and  costumes  from  Normandy. 
"Idyllic  ease"  (line  228)  —  the  sort  one  reads  of  in  old  idyls, 
or  pastoral  poems.  Line  236:  Some  of  the  father's  stories 
were  about  home  life.  How  wide  are  the  sea-marshes  at 
Salisbury  Beach?  What  do  we  mean  by  "a  bee-line"? 
From  these  salt  marshes  the  farmers  gathered  hay  (line  251). 
They  seem  to  have  made  of  the  haying  season  a  holiday; 
they  picnicked  on  the  beach,  and,  as  they  drifted  home  on 
the  great  boat-loads  of  hay,  told  tales  of  witchcraft  and  the 
supernatural. 


192         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Line  256:  The  mother  was  never  idle.  As  she  spun  or 
knitted,  she  told  of  the  "narrow  escape  of  her  ancestors," 
who  lived  "in  the  Indian-haunted  region"  of  southern  New 
Hampshire.  Find  Cocheco  and  the  Piscataqua  on  the  map. 
Was  she  a  good  story-teller  (lines  262-265)?  The  "Gray 
Wizard"  was  Bantam  the  sorcerer,  and  his  "book,"  which 
he  opened  and  consulted  when  asked  to  "conjure,"  was  Cor 
nelius  Agrippa's  Occult  Philosophy,  from  which  Whittier 
quotes  to  preface  his  poem.  Do  you  think  Mrs.  Whittier 
loved  nature?  Line  286:  Sewel  wrote  a  "painful"  history 
of  the  persecutions  and  martyrdoms  among  the  early  Qua 
kers.  See  Pickard  II,  500.  Line  289:  Chalkley  was  a  sea- 
captain,  and  a  very  pious  man.  His  adventure  belonged,  of 
course,  to  the  day  of  sailing-vessels.  Becalmed  crews  and 
castaways  were  sometimes  obliged  to  eat  one  of  their  own 
number.  Line  306:  See  Genesis  22. 

Line  307:  Whittier's  Uncle  Moses  lived  with  them  at 
the  old  home.  See  Pickard's  Life  I,  32,  33.  His  mind  and 
character  are  clearly  described  here.  Had  he  been  much 
at  school?  What  did  he  know?  Lyceum  means  "school;" 
Aristotle  taught  his  disciples  in  the  lyceum,  or  gymnasium. 
The  French  and  the  Germans  call  a  certain  kind  of  school 
a  "lycee"  and  a  "  gymnasium."  Lines  311-316:  Do  you 
know  any  out-of-door  weather  signs?  Will  the  weather 
be  fair  or  rainy  if  you  see  spider-webs  on  the  grass  in  the 
morning?  Line  320:  Apollonius  could  converse  with  birds. 
Line  322:  "Hermes  Trismegistus,"  Greek  name  for  Egyptian 
Dhouth,  or  Thouth,  a  theologian-philosopher-magician. 
See  Longfellow's  poem  to  him,  and  Milton's  "thrice  great 
Hermes"  (II  Penseroso,  line  88),  where  "thrice  great"  is  a 
translation  of  the  name  "Trismegistus."  Lines  325ff.:  The 
uncle  was  not  a  traveller;  hence  the  region  about  Haverhill 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  193 

seemed  to  him  the  center  of  the  universe.  Gilbert  White 
(1720-1793)  wrote  The  Natural  History  of  Selborne,  Selborne 
being  a  parish  in  south  England.  Being  intensely  interested 
in  the  locality,  he  magnified  greatly  the  charms  of  the  county 
of  Surrey  (lines  333ff .) .  What  did  the  uncle  tell  stories  about? 
Was  he  a  good  story-teller? 

L'iae  350:  For  Whittier's  "Aunt  Mercy"  see  Pickard's 
Life  I,  33.  What  character  did  she  develop  (line  360)  ?  What 
stories  did  she  tell?  Do  not  miss  the  fine  metaphor  in  "  home 
spun  warp"  and  "golden  woof-thread"  (lines  368-371).  Ex 
plain  the  beautiful  figure  in  which  Whittier  tells  us  that  his 
aunt  was  always  young  at  heart.  Lines  376,  377:  "Who 
thinks,  not  of  her  lovely  character,  but,  in  a  slighting  manner, 
of  her  lonely  lot." 

Line  378 :  The  older  sister,  like  the  mother,  must  be  busy. 
What  was  her  character?  Pickard's  Life  I,  29.  Do  you  judge 
that  she  had  an  easy  life?  She  died  five  years  before  this 
poem  was  written.  Notice  the  metaphor  in  lines  390,  391. 

Lines  392ff. :  Elizabeth,  Whittier's  younger  sister,  was  his 
housekeeper  and  life-companion.  She  died  a  year  before  the 
poem  was  written.  Her  poems  are  sometimes  printed  with 
her  brother's.  Pickard's  Life  I,  29-31 ;  II,  481,  482;  Whittier- 
land,  74.  How  much  he  missed  her,  lines  418-421  tell  us. 
From  line  423  to  line  427  the  diction  is  governed  by  a  meta 
phor  comparing  his  memory  of  her  to  wealth.  Find  the  words 
that  belong  to  this  metaphor;  do  not  overlook  the  expression 
"in  trust."  Lines  428-437:  Follow  carefully  the  metaphor 
comparing  the  close  of  life  to  the  close  of  day.  Read  Whit- 
tier's  poems  To  my  Sister  and  The  Last  Eve  of  Summer. 

Line  438:  For  the  schoolmaster,  see  Pickard,  Life  I,  33,  41. 
He  was  George  Haskell,  from  Waterford,  Maine.  What  does 
the  poem  tell  of  his  life  and  character?  What  do  you  know  of 


194         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  early  custom  of  " boarding-round"?  Explain  lines  470- 
479.  Arachthus  was  a  Greek  river  that  rose  in  the  Pindus 
Mountains;  Olympus  was  the  mountain  of  the  gods. 

Lines  481-484:  Explain.  Lines  485ff.:  Whittier  thinks 
that  the  South  should  have,  after  the  Civil  War  (1865),  a 
number  of  young  men  like  the  schoolmaster  as  immigrants 
from  the  North,  who  might  encourage  education  and  the  na 
tional  spirit,  and  organize  industry.  They  would  "  recon 
struct"  not  only  legally  but  also  socially.  Explain  the  allu 
sions  and  figures.  What  was  the  history  of  reconstruction 
after  the  Civil  War?  If  such  Northerners  as  this  young  man 
had  gone  South  in  1865,  might  conditions  have  been  differ 
ent?  Line  495:  To  the  Quaker  poet,  war  was  murder. 

Line  510:  For  an  account  of  Miss  Harriet  Livermore,  see 
Pickard,  Life  I,  35 ;  Whittier-land,  30.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  a  Judge  and  Member  of  Congress,  and  had  spent  much 
time  with  her  father  in  Washington,  hence  her  "cultured 
phrase. "  "She  was  equally  ready/'  says  Whittier,  "to  exhort 
in  schoolhouse  prayer-meetings  and  to  dance  in  a  Washington 
ball-room."  In  lines  510-545  Whittier  brings  out  the  strange 
mingling  in  her  nature  of  "the  vixen  and  the  devotee." 
Kate  (line  536),  in  Shakespeare's  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew, 
was  a  lady  of  very  bad  temper,  who  was  subdued  by  her  hus 
band,  Petruchio.  Saint  Catherine  of  Sienna  (1348-1380)  was 
a  noted  mystic. 

Lines  446-562:  Miss  Livermore  became  interested  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Second  Advent,  and  crossed  the  Atlantic  with 
the  message  of  the  Lord's  "quick  coming."  She  travelled 
over  a  large  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and,  at  the  time  Snow- 
Bound  was  written,  was  living  with  a  tribe  of  Arabs,  who 
accepted  her  as  a  prophetess,  believing  that  insanity  was 
divine  inspiration.  The  "Queen  of  Lebanon"  was  Lady 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  195 

Hester  Stanhope,  with  whom  Miss  Livermore  quarrelled 
concerning  their  relative  importance  in  the  kingdom  to  be 
established  by  the  Lord.  Lady  Hester  expected  to  ride  with 
the  Lord  into  Jerusalem,  on  a  white  horse  with  saddle-mark 
ings  of  red. 

Lines  563-569:  Whittier  expresses  his  sympathy  for  this 
poor,  ill-balanced  soul.  We  cannot  tell  how  much  of  her  un 
fortunate  disposition  was  due  to  heredity;  we  cannot  tell 
how  much  was  will  and  how  much  fate;  which  of  her  faults 
she  was  morally  responsible  for,  and  which  she  was  not. 
With  this  thought  in  mind,  explain  the  passage,  word  by 
word.  For  "the  fatal  sisters"  refer  to  your  mythology. 
With  lines  585ff.  compare  Psalms  103:  14. 

Line  592:  Describe  a  "bull's-eye  watch."  Line  601: 
Why  were  they  so  careful  to  keep  the  fire?  With  "wishes" 
(line  608)  connect  lines  612,  613.  What  does  the  paren 
thesis  tell  you  of  the  mother's  practical  charity?  Compare 
her  with  the  elder  sister  (line  383). 

Lines  614-628:  Observe  particularly  the  harmony  between 
sound  and  thought.  The  last  four  lines  are  very  melodious; 
why  is  this  appropriate?  What  devices  are  used  to  produce 
melody?  For  the  exposed  chamber  of  the  boys,  see  Pickard 
I,  43. 

Lines  629ff. :  Breaking  the  roads.    See  Pickard  II,  495. 

Lines  657fL:  "Once  more"  relates  back  to  line  630;  line 
658  refers  to  line  631.  For  the  doctor  see  Pickard,  Life  I,  38. 
Why  had  the  doctor  a  right  to  be  autocratic  (lines  662,  663)? 
Line  666  refers  to  the  doctor  and  Mrs.  Whittier.  He  was  an 
orthodox  New  England  Calvinist,  professing  to  believe  the 
hard,  iron  creed  of  that  sect.  (See  The  Eternal  Goodness.) 
She  was  a  Quaker,  very  liberal  in  judgment  and  creed,  be 
lieving  that  every  person  is,  or  may  be,  directed  by  an 


196        STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

"inward  light."  Explain  the  figure  involved  in  mail;  in 
acid  and  pearl.  The  "election  of  the  saints"  is  a  prominent 
article  in  the  Calvinistic  creed. 

Lines  676ff.:  For  the  books  in  the  Whittier  library,  see 
Pickard,  Life  I,  42  to  46.  How  many  were  there  (line  678)? 
Probably  the  Almanac  was  that  of  Poor  Richard  —  better 
reading  than  the  modern  pamphlet  called  an  "almanac." 
Their  one  book  of  poetry  was  by  an  early  Quaker,  Thomas 
Elwood,  a  young  friend  of  Milton.  The  name  of  his  epic  was 
Davideis.  Do  you  think  it  was  good  poetry  (lines  683-685)? 
For  the  nine  heathen  muses,  see  your  mythology.  The 
splendid  poetry  of  the  classic  languages  was  supposed  to  be 
inspired  by  them.  Explain  the  figures  in  lines  689-692.  The 
Creeks  were  an  Indian  tribe,  then  on  the  war-path.  Mc 
Gregor  was  a  Scotchman  who  tried  unsuccessfully  to  found  a 
settlement  in  Costa  Rica.  General  Ypsilanti  was  a  leader  in 
the  Greek  uprising  against  the  rule  of  the  Turks.  Another 
Greek  hero  of  this  period  was  Marco  Bozzaris,  subject  of 
Halleck's  poem.  Taygetos  is  a  mountain  in  Greece.  Do  you 
think  these  Greeks  made  very  civilized  warfare?  Besides  this 
news  from  all  the  comers  of  the  earth,  the  paper  contained 
(lines  700ff.)  local  news,  advertisements,  and  contributions. 
"Vendue"  sales  are  auctions.  "Goods  at  cost"  are  bargain 
sales.  Line  711:  What  figure  in  embargo?  The  poem  proper 
ends  with  line  714,  when  the  family  is  no  longer  snow 
bound.  The  remaining  lines  form  a  conclusion. 

Line  715:  Apostrophe  to  the  Angel  of  Memory;  observe 
the  description  of  the  angel.  Many  of  the  fine  books  of 
ancient  times  had  brazen  covers  with  clasps.  Explain  the 
significance  of  palimpsest  here.  Characters  means  "letters" 
Line  725  refers  to  the  deaths  in  the  household.  Explain 
vistaed.  The  cypress  and  the  amaranth  are  funeral  tokens, 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  197 

often  planted  on  graves.  Lines  730,  731:  Explain  by  de 
scribing  the  hour-glass.  Lines  732,  733:  Each  hour  of  life 
has  its  insistent  duty.  Line  734  relates  to  lines  715,  718. 
Line  735:  The  voice  of  Duty,  calling  him  from  dreams  of 
the  past  to  the  duties  of  the  present.  Line  739:  Whittier 
believed  that  our  liberties,  imperfect  the  first  century  of  our 
national  existence  because  of  the  presence  of  slavery  in  our 
country,  reached  perfection  with  its  abolition.  See  the  date 
of  poem.  This  paragraph  of  the  conclusion  calls  the  mind  of 
the  poet  back  from  his  dream  of  the  past. 

Line  740:  This  paragraph  justifies  the  dream  by  showing 
its  value  to  several  classes  of  persons  —  the  "worldling,"  or 
man  of  business,  " early  friends,"  and  strangers.  In  line  740 
life  is  conceived  as  a  warfare;  times  of  rest  would  then  be 
truces.  The  Truce  of  God  was  instituted  by  the  Church  in 
the  days  when  secular  governments  were  not  strong  enough 
to  enforce  law  and  order;  the  Church  ordered  men  to  abstain 
from  fighting  on  certain  days.  Flemish  pictures  were  realistic 
representations  of  common  life;  they  sometimes  show  a 
Dutch  kitchen  as  faithfully  as  Whittier  has,  in  words,  pic 
tured  a  New  England  kitchen.  Line  751  refers  to  expres 
sions  of  appreciation  by  strangers,  not  even  known  to  the 
poet  by  name.  Explain  the  two  beautiful  similes  which 
show  a  poet's  gratification  at  such  expressions  of  appreciation, 
and  which  close  the  poem  (lines  752-759). 

IV.  Make  some  study  of  the  versification  and  melody  of 
the  poem,  especially  of  the  most  eloquent  passages. 

V.  To  gather  up  the  thought  of  the  poem  in  a  few  sen 
tences,  so  that  it  shall  impress  us  by  its  unity :  Snow-Bound 
makes  us  acquainted  with  winter-life  in  the  family  of  a  poor 
New  England  farmer  in  the  early  nineteenth  century  (Whit 
tier  was  born  in  1807).     The  poem  lies  altogether  in  the 


198         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

time  and  in  the  scene  of  the  writer's  boyhood,  except  for  the 
following  passages:  — 

Lines  175-210  express  the  poet's  loneliness  in  1865,  as  one 
of  the  two  survivors  of  his  family. 

Lines  422-437  tell  of  his  grief  for  the  sister  who  had  died 
a  year  before  the  poem  was  written. 

Lines  485-509  give  the  poet's  solution  of  the  problem  of 
reconstruction. 

Lines  563-589  show  Whittier's  charity  for  an  ill-balanced 
disposition. 

Lines  715-759  form  the  conclusion. 

Judging  from  Whittier's  allusions,  do  you  not  think  he  was 
remarkably  well-read  for  one  who  had  so  few  early  advan 
tages?  Does  this  poem  give  any  hints  as  to  the  sources  of 
his  culture? 

THE  LAST  WALK  IN  AUTUMN 

I.  Whittier's   theme   is   praise   of   his   native  climate - 
rugged,  cold  New  England  —  in  its  bleakest  season.     Read 
the  poem  through  with  this  outline: 

1.  Description  of  two  late  autumn  New  England  days, 

a  year  apart:  stanzas  I-IV;  (a)  the  day  on  which 
the  "last  walk"  is  taken,  (b)  the  same  day  a  year 
before. 

2.  The  year's  round:  stanzas  V,  VI. 

3.  There  is  as  much  beauty  at  home  as  there  is  abroad: 

stanzas,  VII-IX. 

4.  One  may  travel  in  imagination  while  remaining  at 

home:  stanzas  X,  XI. 

5.  There  is  as  good  company  at  home  as  abroad,  books 

and  men:  stanzas  XII-XVI. 

6.  Home  is  full  of  loving  memories:  stanzas  XVII-XVIII. 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  199 

7.  There  is  greater  inspiration  to  energy  in  a  rugged 

climate  than  in  a  warm  country:  stanzas  XIX— XX. 

8.  There  is  fuller  liberty  in  New  England  than  in  other 

lands:  stanzas  XXI,  XXII. 

9.  The  practical  virtues  belong  to  the  temperate  lands: 

stanzas  XXIII-XXIV. 

10.  The  pleasures  of  winter:  stanza  XXV. 

11.  Trust  expressed  that  the  One  who  cares  for  nature  will 

care  for  the  poet:  stanza  XXVI;  and  for  the  cause 
in  which  he  is  interested:  stanza  XXVII. 

12.  Envoy:  stanza  XXVIII. 

Describe  the  stanza,  rime,  and  meter  of  the  poem.  What 
effect  have  the  longer  lines  at  the  end  of  each  stanza? 

II.  Study  the  poem  carefully  with  the  following  notes  and 
questions. 

Line  1:  What  figure?  Compare  " plead"  (line  2)  and 
"praying"  (line  6).  What  is  the  prayer  of  the  trees? 

Line  8:  Does  Whittier  show  appreciation  of  the  beauties 
of  nature  in  winter?  Is  the  picture  of  autumn  in  stanzas 
I-III  accurate?  About  what  date  is  this?  Study  the  adjec 
tives.  Explain  the  figures  in  lines  12  and  20.  Note  the 
comparison  in  line  17. 

Line  25:  Compare  the  two  autumn  days,  just  a  year  apart. 
Which  would  better  be  described  by  Bryant's  "The  mel 
ancholy  days  have  come"? 

Line  34:  With  "pagoda"  compare  Snow-Bound  line  62. 

Line  42:  Whittier  seems  to  have  enjoyed  sunrise  and 
sunset;  see  The  Huskers.  With  "moonlit  snows"  compare 
Snow-Bound  lines  142ff .  Study  carefully  the  diction  belong 
ing  to  the  description  of  each  season  in  stanzas  V,  VI.  Is 
it  appropriate? 

Line  49:  Observe  the  coherence  between  stanzas  V-VI 


200         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

and  stanzas  VII-VIII  (lines  49,  50  make  the  transition). 
At  this  season  many  of  Whittier's  friends  would  be  going  to 
a  warm  climate  for  the  winter.  His  thoughts  follow  them. 
But  Whittier  was  not,  except  in  reading  and  imagination,  a 
traveller.  Line  51:  The  ardent  beauty  of  the  sun  in  the 
desert.  Line  52:  The  "  Alpine  glow."  Line  55:  The  Arno 
is  a  river  of  Northern  Italy;  Florence  is  the  chief  city  on  it. 
Line  56:  The  Alhambra  is  a  magnificent  Moorish  ruin  in 
Spain. 

Line  58:  "Is  equal  to  him."  Explain  the  figure  in  lines 
57,  58.  Lines  60  to  64  use  the  diction  of  Mohammedan  lands; 
explain  the  figures.  Line  66 :  Pharpar  is  a  river  of  Damascus 
praised  by  Naaman  (II  Kings  5:12).  Line  69:  The  Taj- 
Mahal  ("Gem  of  Buildings")  is  a  celebrated  marble  mau 
soleum.  Line  71 :  Hafiz  (14th  century)  wrote  a  poem  about 
a  Persian  Rose-garden.  Line  72:  St  Peter's  Cathedral  at 
Rome.  Line  73:  Explain  thus.  Line  75:  Though  Whittier 
lived  most  of  his  life  in  one  place,  he  has  seen  the  universe 
(Kosmos).  Line  81:  Explain  thus.  Through  the  exercise 
of  what  faculty  does  the  untravelled  poet  visit  other 
lands  (line  85)?  For  line  86  see  Acts  12,  and  notice  prison 
(line  83)  and  freedom-giving  (line  85).  Is  Whittier  right? 
Did  he  undervalue  travel  because  he  had  not  travelled? 
Probably  his  ill-health  accounted  partly  for  his  remaining 
at  home,  since  his  interests  were  broad.  In  a  letter  to  Bayard 
Taylor,  he  says:  "I  travel  a  great  deal,  however,  by  proxy. 
I  have  had  thee  in  my  service  for  many  years,  much  to  my 
satisfaction.  Dr.  Booth  has  been  to  Timbuctoo  for  me,  and 
Burton  to  Mecca.  Atkinson  has  been  doing  Siberia  for  me. 
I  think  (if  thy  Marie  does  not  object)  of  sending  thee  off 
again  to  find  Xanadu  and  Kubla  Khan."  (Pickard,  Life  II, 
429.  See  also  II,  469  and  Whittier's  poem  to  Bayard  Taylor.) 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  201 

Other  men,  who  have  travelled,  have  expressed  themselves 
as  Whittier  has  done  in  the  stanzas  we  are  studying.  In  a 
letter  to  his  grandson,  apropos  of  a  disappointment  about  a 
trip  to  Europe,  Lowell  writes:  "After  all,  the  kind  of  world 
one  carries  about  in  one's  self  is  the  important  thing,  and 
the  world  outside  takes  all  its  grace,  color,  and  value  from 

that."  See  Lowell's  An  Invitation,  Whittier's  To , 

and  Our  River,  Emerson's  Written  in  Naples,  Holmes's  After 
a  Lecture  on  Wordsworth.  Emerson's  Journal  (at  Naples, 
1834)  says:  "This  moment,  this  vision,  I  might  have  had  in 
my  own  closet  in  Boston."  See  also  Carpenter's  Whittier,  86. 

Line  89:  Whittier  enjoys  the  company  of  his  books.  Who 
are  "the  masters  of  the  ancient  lyre"?  Bacon  was  the 
English  philosopher  and  essayist  of  the  early  seventeenth 
century.  Pascal  was  a  French  philosopher  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Explain  line  96.  Some  persons  object  that  dead 
authors  are  not  as  satisfactory  as  living  friends.  Explain  lines 
99,  100.  Herbs  are  simple  food  (see  Proverbs  15:17);  am 
brosia  is  the  food  of  the  gods.  "Laurelled  shades"  are  the 
ghosts  of  those  crowned  with  laurel  because  of  their  poetic 
gifts.  Line  104:  Whittier  enjoys  friends  as  well  as  books. 

Line  105:  Stanza  XIV  refers  to  Emerson,  whose  nature 
was  a  strange  combination  of  Yankee  shrewdness  and  Oriental 
mysticism.  As  a  philosopher,  he  would  have  been  a  fit 
companion  of  the  old  Greek  Plato.  Notice  the  contradiction 
in  "shrewd  mystic."  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac,"  compiled 
by  Benjamin  Franklin,  is  a  book  of  practical  common- 
sense,  is  shrewd.  The  Sufi  was  a  monarch  of  a  Persian 
dynasty;  see  Emerson's  Saadi,  a  mystic  poem.  Emerson's 
Brahma  (the  Gentoo's,  or  Hindoo's,  dream)  is  also  a  mystic 
poem.  Manu  was  a  Hindoo  deified  king,  lawgiver,  and 
philosopher.  Fulton  was  the  inventor  of  the  steamboat. 


202         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Eastern  lands  are  famous  for  their  metaphysical  thought; 
the  western  world  for  practical  invention  and  application. 

Line  113:  This  stanza  refers  to  Bayard  Taylor  and  his 
poems  of  travel.  Prince  Houssain,  in  The  Arabian  Nights,  sat 
on  a  "wishing  carpet,"  and  was  transported  by  magic  where- 
ever  he  wished  to  be.  Phrygia  is  in  Asia  Minor;  Nubia  is 
in  North  Africa. 

Line  121 :  This  stanza  refers  to  Charles  Sumner,  interested, 
like  Whittier,  in  the  anti-slavery  cause,  and  its  champion 
in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  He  was  attacked  in  1856 
by  Preston  Brooks  on  the  floor  of  the  Senate,  and  so  badly 
injured  that  he  was  long  an  invalid.  Aristides  the  Just  was 
an  Athenian  general  of  the  5th  century  B.  C.  Find  his 
story  in  your  Greek  History.  What  kind  of  statesman  was 
Sumner?  What  reference  here  to  his  education  and  culture? 
Explain  lines  122,  123,  124. 

Line  132:  " Treasure"  —compare  the  figure  with  that 
in  Snow-Bound,  lines  423^427.  " Conscious"  —compare 
Snow-Bound,  line  199.  Notice  the  return  to  the  autumn 
landscape  in  lines  133  to  136.  Explain  " shadowy." 

Line  139 :  Whittier  felt  the  keen  winter  air  of  New  England 
bitterly.  Explain  line  140.  Ceylon  is  a  tropic  island  in  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Line  148:  The  "Bear"  is  the  constellation 
containing  the  Little  Dipper,  one  of  whose  stars  is  the  North 
Star.  The  "Cross"  is  the  constellation  that  is  related  to  the 
South  Pole  as  the  Bear  is  to  the  North.  It  is  visible  south 
of  the  Equator.  Whittier  thinks  of  the  Cross  as  shining  on 
tropic  lands.  The  same  contrast  between  the  summer  lands 
and  cold  climates  is  expressed  in  lines  149,  150,  and  151-152. 
The  "Line"  is  the  Equator. 

Line  153:  Explain  the  figures  in  this  stanza.  Memorize 
the  stanza.  What  climate  does  it  praise?  Why? 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  203 

Line  162:  Versailles  was  ihe  magnificent  home  of  French 
kings;  Windsor  is  the  palace  of  English  monarchs.  What 
does  Whittier  compare  favorably  with  these  splendid  build 
ings?  Why?  Line  165:  The  simple  village  church.  Line  166: 
Some  of  the  finest  cathedrals  are  of  the  Gothic  style  of  archi 
tecture.  Line  168:  St.  Peter's  Cathedral  at  Rome.  There 
is  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral  at  Milan. 

Line  169:  " Equal"  -where  the  children  are  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  same  social  class.  Lines  171,  172:  In 
countries  where  there  is  an  established  church,  the  schools 
teach  its  doctrines,  as  do  the  parochial  schools  established 
by  certain  sects  in  our  country.  Lines  173-176:  He  com 
pares  our  Thanksgiving  favorably  with  the  Carnival,  or 
Mardi  Gras/that  some  countries  celebrate  just  before  Lent. 
That  is  a  gay  festival,  when  a  great  deal  of  license  is  permitted 
on  the  city  streets.  The  revellers  usually  go  masked.  The 
"chains"  are  mental  and  religious.  Whittier  was  earnestly 
grateful  for  our  liberty  of  education  and  conscience.  Show 
why  the  metaphor  in  line  174  is  particularly  good  in  connec 
tion  with  Thanksgiving  customs. 

Line  179 :  Arcadia  was  a  Greek  state  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  country  by  surrounding  moun 
tains.  The  rustic,  simple  life  of  the  Arcadians,  far  removed 
from  the  strifes  and  worldly  anxieties  of  their  neighbors,  has 
given  the  name  "  Arcadian"  the  notion  of  pastoral  simplicity 
and  happiness.  Line  181:  New  England  has  no  canonized 
saints.  Whittier  prefers  ordinary  men  and  women,  with 
characters  of  mingled  strength  and  weakness.  Line  185: 
What  are  some  of  the  practical,  social  virtues  he  sees  in  the 
men  and  women  about  him?  Were  these  social  virtues 
valued  and  cherished  by  the  saints  and  hermits  of  the  Middle 
Ages?  Line  188:  Explain  the  metaphor.  Line  190:  Ex- 


204         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

plain  this,  referring  to  Exodus  3 : 5.  Doing  one's  duty  puts 
one  in  touch  with  the  divine. 

Line  191 :  There  were  no  slaves  in  New  England  in  1856, 
when  this  poem  was  written. 

Line  194:  Trumpets  were  used  by  heralds  to  announce 
guests;  explain  the  metaphor.  Line  196:  See  line  4.  Lines 
197ff.  speak  of  winter  pleasures  in  New  England. 

Lines  201-204:  Explain  this  reference  to  Nature.  Line 
208:  Explain  the  figure. 

Lines  209-212:  Whittier  refers  to  his  anti-slavery  work. 
This  poem  was  written  in  1856,  and  the  slaves  were  not  freed 
till  1863. 

Line  218:  Whittier  had  written  many  poems  less  artistic 
than  this.  Line  222:  He  had  many  enemies  because  of  his 
anti-slavery  work.  Line  224:  He  was  a  good  Quaker;  while 
he  hated  the  sin,  he  loved  the  sinner,  and  never  felt  personal 
enmity  —  although  he  did  sometimes  feel  a  righteous  indig 
nation  against  the  unjust. 

III.  Study  the  poem  carefully  for  melody  and  harmony. 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.     Express  clearly  Whittier's 
thought  and  his  love  for  his  home. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life,  2  Vol.,  by  Horace  Scudder;  Boston,  1901. 
Letters,  2  Vol.,  by  Chas.  Eliot  Norton;  New  York,  1894. 
Life,  by  Ferris  Greenslet;  Boston,  1905. 
Life,  by  F.  H.  Underwood;  Boston,  1893. 
Life,  by  E.  E.  Brown;  Boston,  1887. 

James  Russell  Lowell  and  His  Friends,  by  Edward  Everett  Hale; 
Boston,  1899. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

The  Beggar,  The  Fatherland,  The  Fountain,  The  Heritage,  Longing, 
Without  and  Within,  Sonnets  4,  6,  17,  24,  25;  For  an  Autograph, 
Aladdin,  The  Parting  of  the  Ways,  Masaccio,  In  the  Twilight,  To  a 
Pine  Tree,  Beaver  Brook,  Al  Fresco,  The  Sower,  Yussouf . 

An  Indian  Summer  Reverie,  Pictures  from  Appledore. 

Bibliolatres,  Extreme  Unction,  Si  Descendero  in  Infernum,  The 
Cathedral. 

Poems  of  the  War,  Three  Memorial  Poems,  Columbus. 

A  Good  Word  for  Winter.  (Critical  essays  should  be  studied  in  con 
nection  with  the  authors  they  discuss.) 

See  also  Appendix  I,  titles  68  to  75  inclusive. 

THE  SINGING  LEAVES 

I.  Read  the  poem  for  its  story  and  general  impression. 

II.  Why  is  this  poem  called  a  ballad?     The  real  folk- 
ballads  of  our  race  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  Middle 
Ages.     Many  modern  poets  also  have  written  ballads,  and 

205 


206         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

some  who  know  and  love  the  old  folk-poems  have  tried  to 
imitate  their  style.  Lowell  here  imitates  in  many  ways 
the  mediaeval  English  and  Scotch  ballads.  If  you  can  read  a 
few  of  them  as  a  background  for  this  poem,  you  will  better 
appreciate  Lowell's  effort.  Our  American  poet  has  chosen 
his  characters  from  a  social  organization  we  have  outgrown; 
they  are  a  King  and  three  Princesses,  and  a  page.  The  king 
gives  a  blind  promise,  which  he  cannot  in  honor  break  —  a 
motif  used  in  many  a  mediaeval  tale.  The  trading  was  done 
at  a  fair,  an  old  custom  that  still  survives  in  some  quaint 
European  towns.  Much  of  Lowell's  phrasing,  and  the  great 
number  of  archaic  words  help  to  revive  the  atmosphere  of 
the  ancient  ballads.  Some  of  his  peculiar  phrases  are  ballad 
conventions.  Three  was  a  favorite  ballad  number.  The 
articles  demanded  by  the  older  sisters  were  popular  mediaeval 
adornments.  The  heroine  of  an  old  story  is  often  a  good 
young  girl,  despised  and  scorned  by  her  older  sisters.  (Com 
pare  Cinderella.) 

Make  a  study  of  the  archaic  and  figurative  phrasing  of  the 
poem.  If  you  are  somewhat  familiar  with  the  old  ballads, 
you  will  find  that  some  of  the  expressions  in  your  lists  are 
common,  conventional  ballad-phrases. 

The  rhythmic  movement  also  recalls  the  ballad  measure, 
the  fundamental  pattern  being  4xa,  3xa,  4xa,  3xa,  with  the 
rime-plan  abcb. 

III.  Do  you  think  Lowell  means  any  more  by  this  poem 
than  the  pretty  story  itself?  Has  he  a  moral  thought? 
What  is  "  Vanity  Fair  "?  Do  the  " Singing  Leaves "  stand  for 
something  more  precious  than  gold  and  silks  and  jewels? 
Why  could  not  the  King  find  them  at  Vanity  Fair?  This 
spiritual  interpretation  of  the  story  belongs  to  Lowell's  style 
and  not  to  the  ballad  convention. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  207 

IV.  Tell  the  story  of  The  Singing  Leaves.  Try  to  re 
produce  Lowell's  quaint,  mediaeval  atmosphere,  by  bringing 
in  such  of  his  archaic  words  and  expressions  as  you  can  use 
naturally.  Use  also  such  of  Lowell's  figures  as  you  consider 
particularly  appropriate  and  significant  in  a  poem  of  this  sort. 
Suggest  the  moral  thought  delicately,  as  Lowell  has  done;  do 
not  make  it  obtrusive. 

THE  SHEPHERD  OF  KING  ADMETUS 

I.  This  poem  may,  at  first  reading,  seem  to  confuse  music 
and  poetry,  but  reference  to  an  old  custom  makes  it  clear. 
Before  the  invention  of  printing  made  books  current,  poets 
were  obliged  to  chant  their  works  to  such  audiences  as  they 
could  gather  about  them,  often  accompanying  their  "  sing 
ing"  by  striking  notes  on  some  musical  instrument,  as  the 
harp  or  the  lyre.    Sometimes  men  who   could   not   com 
pose  sang  the  works  of  the  more  gifted  "  makers."    Alma 
Tadema's  painting  called  Reading  from  Homer  depicts  such 
a  scene.    The  best  poets  were  naturally  employed  at  the 
courts  of  kings.    Because  of  this  old  custom,  poets  have 
often  been  called  "  singers." 

Study  in  classic  mythology  the  story  of  the  god  Apollo 
at  the  court  of  King  Admetus.  The  first  four  stanzas  of  this 
poem  tell  the  same  story.  What  instrument  did  Apollo 
use?  How  did  his  music  affect  his  hearers?  Was  King 
Admetus  a  good  judge  of  music?  How  did  he  reward  the 
poet? 

II.  Why  did  men  call  the  poet  " shiftless"  (lines  3  and  4)? 
Had  he  influence  over  them  in  spite  of  their  scorn?    Describe 
the  songs  of  the  poet  (lines  16-20).     What  were  his  sub 
jects  (lines  27-32)?     Do  you  know  any  poem  of  Lowell's 
addressed  to  a  "Dear  common  flower"?     It  was  the  very 


208         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

commonness  of  the  dandelion,  the  weed,  that  taught  Lowell  a 
beautiful  lesson.  With  lines  31,  32  compare  Shakespeare's 
"  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks,  and  good  in 
everything."  (As  You  Like  It  II,  1.)  Explain  also  Apollo's 
relation  to  ancient  medical  science.  Explain  stanza  9,  com 
paring  it  with  stanza  6. 

After  the  poet  was  gone,  and  almost  forgotten  as  a  per 
sonality,  the  beautiful  things  he  had  taught  men  about 
" weeds  and  stones  and  springs"  remained  in  their  hearts, 
and  made  the  earth  more  lovely  and  wonderful.  And  those 
who  came  after  him  and  had  enough  poetry  in  their  souls  to 
sympathize  with  him  finally  understood  the  divine  character 
of  his  work. 

III.  This  poem  is  intended  to  help  us  appreciate  the  great 
and  sacred  work  that  poetry,  music,  and  art  perform  for 
human  society.  Does  Lowell  represent  art  as  a  source  of 
pleasure,  merely?  What  significance  is  there  in  making  a  god 
the  founder  of  an  art? 

Scudder  (I,  147)  says  of  the  period  of  Lowell's  life  in 
which  King  Admetus  was  written:  "We  do  find,  recurring 
in  various  forms,  a  recognition  of  an  all-embracing,  all- 
penetrating  power  which  through  the  poet  transmutes  nature 
into  something  finer  and  more  eternal,  and  gives  him  a 
vantage  ground  from  which  to  perceive  more  truly  the  real 
ities  of  life.  The  Token,  An  Incident  in  a  Railroad  Car}  The 
Shepherd  of  King  Admetus  all  in  a  manner  witness  to  this, 
and  show  how  persistently  in  Lowell's  mind  was  present  this 
aspect  of  the  poet  which  makes  him  a  seer." 

In  one  of  his  essays  Lowell  says,  "To  make  the  common 
marvellous  is  the  test  of  genius."  Discuss  this  statement, 
and  read  with  it  Emerson's  poem  named  Art.  Put  with 
them  these  lines  from  Browning's  Fra  Lippo  Lippi:  — 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  209 

We're  so  made  that  we  love 

First  when  we  see  them  painted,  things  we  have  passed 
Perhaps  a  hundred  times  nor  cared  to  see; 
And  so  they  are  better,  painted  —  better  to  us, 
Which  is  the  same  thing.    Art  was  given  for  that; 
God  uses  us  to  help  each  other  so, 
Lending  our  minds  out. 

With  this  poem  compare  Bryant's  The  Poet,  and  Whit 
man's  When  the  Full-grown  Poet  Comes,  and  Holmes's  notion 
(see  The  Chambered  Nautilus)  that  every  material  thing  can 
be  used  as  an  illustration  of  some  spiritual  truth. 

AN  INCIDENT  IN  A  RAILROAD  CAR 

I.  Lowell  has  required  only  five  stanzas  to  relate  his  in 
cident  and  tell  what  lesson  it  taught  him.    Relate  the  incident 
(stanzas  1-3).    Tell  the  effect  of  the  scene  on  the  observer 
(stanza  4)  and  on  the  actors  (stanza  5) .    The  remainder  of  the 
poem  sets  forth  Lowell's  theory  that  the  elements  of  poetry 
exist  in  every  human  heart,  however  crude,  in  some  primitive 
form;  the  poet  is  only  the  man  who,  feeling  more  deeply, 
thinking  more  clearly,  is  able  to  formulate  and  express  the 
universal  emotion. 

II.  Study  the  poem  in  detail,  consulting  the  following 
notes  and  questions  : 

Line  4 :  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Lines  6,  7:  Explain  the  metaphor.  In  spite  of  his  gifts, 
Burns  always  remained  one  of  the  "  common  people,"  and 
wrote  chiefly  of  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  the  poor. 

Lines  13-20:  Explain. 

Lines  18:  What  is  the  object  of  " above"? 

Lines  21-36:  Follow  the  metaphor  comparing  the  higher 
impulses  of  the  human  heart  to  seeds  that  grow  up 


210         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

and  produce  blossoms;  i.  e.  inspiring  words  and  noble 
deeds. 

Lines  37-56:  The  great  poet  Wordsworth,  too,  thought 
that  the  " elementary  feelings"  are  more  easily  found  among 
simple  folk  than  among  the  great  and  learned.  Another 
Great  Teacher,  who  lived  chiefly  among  the  poor  and  humble, 
has  admonished  us  to  remain  simple-hearted,  like  little 
children  (see  Matthew  18:  3;  19:14). 

Lines  47,  48 :  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Line  51:  Win  means  "climb  up,"  "win  their  way." 

Lines  55,  56 :  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Lines  57-60:  All  thought,  Lowell  says,  is  founded  on  the 
"great  mass"  of  feeling,  in  which  its  origin  is  hidden.  When 
the  feeling  of  the  race  "narrows  up"  to  the  thought  of  the 
few  more  cultivated  souls,  what  form  may  it,  in  metaphor, 
be  said  to  take? 

Lines  61-64:  Where  does  human  thought  and  feeling  have 
its  origin? 

Lines  65-68:  What  does  the  poet  do  for  the  race?  Espe 
cially  for  what  class? 

Lines  69-72:  Compare  lines  13-20. 

Lines  73-76:  Lowell  here  has  in  mind  difficult  poets,  such 
as  Milton,  who  knew  he  was  writing  for  "fit  audience,  though 
few;"  the  "grand  old  masters,"  the  "bards  sublime." 
(Longfellow:  The  Day  Is  Done.) 

Lines  77-88:  Lowell  thinks  that  the  "humbler  poet,"  not 
too  difficult  for  the  simple  heart  to  understand,  reaches  better 
the  great  mass  of  men,  untrained  to  grasp  the  more  complex 
thought  of  the  great  master.  Line  81  relates  back  to  line  77. 

III.  Read  six  of  Burns's  poems.  Notice  how  easy  they 
are  to  understand;  how  simply  they  express  feelings  common 
to  all  men,  rich  and  poor,  learned  and  ignorant.  Then  read 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  211 

Lowell's  Incident  once  more,  and  see  how  much  clearer  to  you 
it  is.  The  following  are  good  poems  to  choose  from  Burns :  — 
My  Heart  is  in  the  Highlands,  John  Anderson,  My  Jo,  Auld 
Lang  Syne,  Is  there  for  Honest  Poverty,  A  Red,  Red  Rose, 
The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night. 

RHCECUS 

I.  On  first  reading  the  poem,  you  will  see  that  lines  1-35 
form  a  prelude  to  the  old  classic  tale  related  in  36-160.    It 
will  be  best  for  you  to  give  your  attention  first  to  the  story 
part,  and  come  back  later  to  the  prelude. 

Lowell  usually  tells  his  story  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  a 
moral  thought.  Read  again  this  "  fairy  legend  of  old  Greece," 
to  see  what  practical  thought  for  life  Lowell  makes  it  yield 
you.  You  will  need  to  give  special  attention  to  lines  129-140, 
where  the  Dryad  tells  the  youth  how  he  has  offended  her. 
Though  she  says  something  about  his  unkindness  to  her  mes 
senger,  the  bee,  the  significant  line  is  137: 

We  ever  ask  an  undivided  love. 

Rhcecus  wasted  in  foolish  pleasure  the  time  he  should  have 
given  to  the  Dryad,  and  he  forever  lost  her.  "A  lost  oppor 
tunity  is  gone  forever." 

II.  Tell  the  story  of  Rhoecus  as  you  learn  it  from  Lowell. 
You  may  use  any  of  his  fine  diction  and  figures  that  linger 
in  your  mind  after  two  or  three  careful  readings.    Try  partic 
ularly  to  use  some  of  the  best  epithets. 

III.  Did  you  ask  yourself,  when  you  were  studying  the 
story  of  Rhcecus,  why  a  man  of  the  nineteenth  century  should 
tell  a  tale  written  hundreds  of  years  earlier,  especially  one 
about  a  Dryad,  a  creature  in  whose  existence  we  have  long 
ceased  to  believe?    Lowell  has  anticipated  such  a  ques- 


212         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

tion  and  has  answered  it  in  the  prelude  to  this  poem  (lines 
1-35). 

We  are  prone  to  think  that  our  time  only,  our  nation 
alone,  knows  the  truth;  what  does  Lowell  say  in  lines  1-5? 
Possibly  the  form  of  expression  each  nation  and  age  has  used 
is  best  fitted  to  its  own  development  and  cast  of  mind  — 
whether  the  expression  be  myth,  fable,  philosophy,  or  the 
ology.  Notice  the  figure  in  " realm,"  "rule."  Every  re 
ligion  that  has  gained  followers  has  had  some  truth  in  it 
(lines  6-12),  or  earnest  men  would  never,  for  one  moment, 
have  rested  in  it.  Explain  the  metaphor  in  "master-key." 
"Down"  (line  11)  contains  the  same  metaphor  we  use  when 
we  say  "beds  of  ease."  There  is  a  germ  of  truth  in  every 
myth  and  fable.  Explain  the  metaphor  in  "reign"  (line  15) 
and  "right  divine"  (line  16),  referring  to  the  belief  of  certain 
kings  in  the  source  of  their  authority.  Lines  18,  19  refer 
to  an  old  superstition  that  a  hazel-twig  will  point  down 
ward  when  the  person  that  holds  it  passes  over  a  subterranean 
spring.  In  line  21  Lowell  goes  back  to  the  figure  he  began 
with  "germ"  (line  9).  The  "germ"  is  the  principle  of  life 
in  the  seed,  the  "hull"  the  outside  protection;  the  story 
is  the  hull,  the  truth  it  contains  is  the  germ.  "Inspirations" 
(line  26)  are  artistic  expressions  —  art,  poetry,  sculpture,  etc. 
The  "food"  (line  28)  comes  from  the  "germ;"  the  "hull," 
or  mere  expression,  is  the  artistic  form  in  which  the  truth 
is  current  among  mankind.  Explain  the  figure  in  line  27. 

The  figures  are  so  crowded  and  press  so  closely  on  the  heels 
of  one  another  in  this  prelude  that  they  seem  almost  con 
fused;  but  it  is  not  hard  for  you  to  see  that  Lowell  tells  this 
story,  which  we  cannot  literally  believe,  because,  as  he 
explains,  it  contains  a  truth  for  all  time  and  all  men.  The 
story  itself  is  worth  telling  for  its  grace  and  beauty  —  which 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  213 

equal  the  eternal  grace  and  beauty  of  a  Greek  sculptured 
figure. 

If  one  should  feel  doubtful  about  the  moral  teaching  of  this 
poem,  he  should  consult  the  Greek  original.  The  old  story  lacks 
the  spirituality  of  Lowell's  adaptation,  but  Rhcecus  is  plainly  pun 
ished  for  his  neglect  of  the  Dryad,  not  for  his  unkindness  to  the  bee. 
Of  course  so  short  a  poem  could  teach  only  one  lesson  without  los 
ing  in  unity  of  effect.  Possibly  the  words  that  reprove  Rhcecus 
for  bruising  the  bee  distract  the  mind  from  the  real  fault  of  the 
neglectful  youth;  at  least  some  students  have  regarded  them  as 
teaching  the  main  lesson  of  the  poem.  Gentle  (eyes)  does  not  here 
mean  "tender,"  but  rather  "noble;"  and  a  man  of  good  breed 
ing  would  never,  under  any  circumstances,  fail  in  the  courtesy  to 
women  demanded  by  the  conventions  of  his  time  and  country. 
And  with  this  poem  compare  The  Hamadryad  of  Walter  Savage 
Landor. 

To  THE  DANDELION 

I.  When  we  see  a  bed  of  dandelions,  we  are  struck,  not 
by  the  shape  of  the  flowers,  but  by  the  mass  of  warm,  rich, 
golden  color.     So  was  the  poet  Lowell.  The  color  of  the 
flower  is  the  basis  of  expression  in  the  first,  second,  third, 
and  sixth  stanzas  of  To  the  Dandelion;  the  poet's  association 
of  the  flower  with  memories  of  his  childhood  is  the  basis  of 
thought  in  the  fourth  and  fifth. 

II.  There  is  so  much  figurative  language  in  the  poem  that 
the  explanation  of  thought  required  the  analysis  of  the  figures. 

Stanza  1.  The  color  of  the  flower  naturally  suggests  gold. 
The  fact  that  the  flower  is  found  in  great  beds  reminds  the 
poet  of  the  time  when  the  European,  especially  the  Spanish, 
explorers  expected  to  find  gold  in  unlimited  quantities  in 
America.  This  association  of  gold  in  great  quantities  with 
the  early  history  of  America  forms  the  basis  for  the  meta- 


214         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

phors  for  this  stanza.  The  children,  joyfully  picking  and  ex 
hibiting  the  blossoms,  are  "  buccaneers,"  and  the  dandelion 
bed  is  an  "  Eldorado."  Explain  the  stanza  now  in  detail. 

Stanza  2.  The  gold  of  the  dandelion,  however,  is  not  like 
the  gold  of  Eldorado;  it  is  " harmless."  Think  of  all  the  evil 
the  Spaniards  did  to  the  natives  of  the  New  World,  and  of 
al-1  they  themselves  suffered;  the  gold  for  which  they  sought 
was  not  harmless.  Neither  is  the  gold  of  the  old  miser  harm 
less  when  it  tempts  a  young  girl  to  forsake  for  him  her  youth 
ful  lover,  his  rival.  The  metaphor  now  changes.  Spring 
scatters  dandelions  with  lavish  hand  over  the  earth,  as  gener 
ous  knights  and  ladies  of  old  threw  "largess"  (gifts  of  coin) 
to  the  common  people  on  festal  days.  Unfortunately,  most 
persons  do  not  understand  the  spiritual  treasure  the  common 
dandelion  offers  them,  and  pass  it  by  with  eye  unblessed; 
as  a  peasant  might  have  failed  to  pick  up  the  largess  scattered 
by  the  passing  nobility  beside  the  road.  Go  over  the  stanza 
again,  and  explain  it  in  your  own  words. 

Stanza  3.  The  warm,  rich  color  of  the  flower  suggests  luxu 
riant  tropic  lands.  It  rouses  in  the  memory  and  imagination 
pictures  associated  with  kinder  climates  than  that  of  rugged 
New  England;  with  far  off  lands,  which  the  poet  has  visited 
long  ago.  It  calls  up  a  feeling  of  luxury  like  that  experienced 
by  the  bee  in  the  lily;  a  luxury  like  that  of  Sybaris  of  old. 
Follow  the  thought  of  the  stanza  through  again,  and  explain 
it  in  your  own  words.  Make  clear  the  comparison  of  the 
bee,  in  metaphor,  to  the  soldiers  who  conquered  Sybaris 
("golden-curassed,"  "tent"),  and  tell  something  about  the 
luxury  of  Sybaris.  What  is  a  sybarite? 

Stanza  4.  The  dandelion,  by  some  power  of  association, 
calls  up  in  the  poet's  mind  a  lovely  summer  landscape,  per 
haps  a  picture  of  the  field  in  which  he,  as  a  child,  gathered 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  215 

the  blossoms.  Can  you  sketch  the  landscape  —  the  trees, 
the  water,  the  animals,  the  light  and  shade,  the  colors? 
Should  any  signs  of  motion  be  apparent  in  your  picture? 
Note  the  beautiful  simile  in  the  last  line. 

Stanza  5.  The  dandelion  is  also  associated  with  the  poet's 
other  memories  of  springtime  in  his  childhood.  Explain  par 
ticularly  "untainted"  and  " peers.7' 

Stanza  6  comes  back  to  the  color  metaphor  in  "gold" 
and  "prodigal."  The  moral  thought  attaches  itself  to  the 
notion  of  commonness.  Through  the  profit  he  gets  from  his 
tenderness  for  this  common  flower,  so  rich  in  power  to  touch 
the  heart  and  the  imagination,  the  poet  learns  to  feel  more 
reverence  for  all  human  beings.  Many  of  them  seem  com 
monplace  when  he  meets  them  carelessly,  but  all  of  them,  if 
he  gives  them  the  love  due  from  him  to  every  fellow-mortal, 
reflect  to  him  something  of  the  divine,  as  every  dandelion 
seems  to  reflect  the  sun.  Human  hearts  are  the  "  living  pages 
of  God's  book;"  see  II  Corinthians  3:2. 

III.  Study  the  adjectives  and  epithets  used  in  the  poem. 
Are  these  as  strong  as  its  figures  in  beauty  and  suggestiveness? 

IV.  Study  the  meter,  the  line,  the  stanza,  and  the  rime- 
plan.     What  devices  do  you  find  for  securing  melody  and 
harmony?    Give  special  attention  here  to  the  fourth  stanza. 

V.  Read  the  poem  aloud. 

THE  NIGHTINGALE  IN  THE  STUDY 

I.  "The  Nightingale  in  the  Study  was  written  when  he 
sought  in  illness  for  something  that  would  seclude  him  from 
himself."  —  Scudder  I,  269. 

I  have  not  felt  in  the  mood  to  do  much  during  my  imprisonment. 
One  little  poem  I  have  written  —  The  Nightingale  in  the  Study.  It  is 
about  Calderon,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  pretty.  JTis  a  dialogue 


216         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

between  my  cat-bird  and  me  —  he  calling  me  out  of  doors,  I  giving  my 
better  reasons  for  staying  within.  Of  course  my  nightingale  is  Cald- 
eron.  *  —  Letters  I,  437  (.July  8,  1867). 

For  about  a  week  I  could  read  nothing  but  Calderon  —  a  continual 
delight,  like  walking  in  a  wood  where  there  is  a  general  sameness  in  the 
scenery,  and  yet  a  constant  vicissitude  of  light  and  shade,  an  endless 
variety  of  growth.  He  is  certainly  the  most  delightful  of  poets.  Such 
fertility,  such  a  gilding  of  the  surfaces  of  things  with  fancy,  or  infusion 
of  them  with  the  more  potent  fires  of  the  imagination,  such  lightsome- 
ness  of  humor!  Even  the  tragedies  are  somehow  not  tragic  to  me, 
though  terrible  enough  sometimes,  for  everybody  has  such  a  talent  for 
being  consoled,  and  that  out  of  hand.  Life  with  him  is  too  short  and 
too  uncertain  for  sorrow  to  last  longer  than  to  the  end  of  the  scene,  if  so 
long.  As  Ate  makes  her  exit,  she  hands  her  torch  to  Hymen,  who  dances 
in  brandishing  it  with  an  lo!  The  passions  (some  of  the  most  un 
christian  of  'em)  are  made  religious  duties,  which,  once  fulfilled,  you  be 
gin  life  anew  with  a  clear  conscience,  f 

-  Letters  II,  167. 

II.  Read  the  poem  carefully,  and  observe  which  part  of  the 
"dialogue"  belongs  to  the  bird  and  which  to  the  scholar. 

III.  Study  the  poem  minutely  with  the  following  notes:  — 
Line  4:  Alcina  was  a  fairy  in  the  poems  of  the  Italian 

writers,  Ariosto  and  Boiardo.  In  her  garden  her  guests  en 
joyed  all  sorts  of  delights. 

Line  6 :  Lesbos  and  Massico  are  places  in  Greece  and  Italy, 
celebrated  for  excellent  wines. 

Line  8:  "May  not  my  ode  be  classic?"  i.  e.  as  good  as  the 
poems  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Line  10:  Beaver  Brook  was  a  favorite  haunt  of  Lowell's. 
It  is  near  Cambridge.  See  the  poem  Beaver  Brook. 

Line  17:  Boot  means  "help." 

Line  18:  Leaves  of  books. 

*  Used  by  permission  of  Harper  Brothers. 

fFrom  Correspondence  of  James  Russell  Lowell.  Copyright,  1893,  by 
Harper  Brothers. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  217 

Lines  21,  22:  Contrast  with  line  18. 

Line  27:  The  cuckoo  is  called  the  "rain-crow,"  because  its 
cries  are  said  to  predict  rain. 

Lines  39,  40:  Notice  the  poet's  love  for  June.  Explain  the 
personification  of  June,  and  the  meaning  of  the  two  lines. 

Line  41 :  Comparison  of  the  poet  Calderon  to  the  bird,  as 
in  the  title  of  the  poem.  Follow  the  metaphor  through  the 
remaining  stanzas.  Calderon  was  a  Spanish  dramatist  and 
poet  (1600-1681).  Many  of  his  dramas  relate  to  the  Moors 
in  Spain.  Tichnor  (History  of  Spanish  Literature  II,  363) 
says:  "Nor  is  the  preservation  of  national  or  individual  char 
acter,  except  perhaps  the  Moorish,  a  matter  of  any  more  mo 
ment  in  his  eyes." 

Line  44 :  Calderon,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  must  have 
fed  his  imagination  on  old  mediaeval  romances. 

Line  47:  Subjects  of  Calderon's  poems. 

Line  48:  Dona  Clara  is  the  heroine  of  Calderon's  Love  Sur 
vives  Life.  Her  husband  was  a  Moor. 

Lines  49-52:  Scenes  of  which  one  reads  in  Calderon. 

Line  54 :  The  character  of  Calderon's  plots. 

Lines  55,  56:  Refer  to  the  note  on  line  41,  and  explain 
these  lines. 

Lines  57,  58:  The  adventurous  nature  of  Calderon's  plots 
is  referred  to. 

Lines  59,  60:  Explain. 

Line  61 :  Addressed  to  the  cat-bird. 

Line  64:  Refer  to  the  note  on  line  41  for  explanation. 

Line  65:  Still  addressed  to  the  cat-bird. 

IV.  Study  meter,  stanza,  and  rime;  and  devices  for  secur 
ing  melody. 

V.  "  The  Nightingale  in  the  Study,  written  in  the  summer 
of  1867,  holds  in  capital  form  a  genuine  confession  that  there 


218         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

was  an  appeal  to  him  from  nature  in  literature,  which  did  not 
antagonize  the  appeal  made  to  him  by  the  world  of  natural 
beauty,  yet  sometimes  constrained  and  invited  him  in  tones 
he  could  not  resist,  even  though  the  birds  without  were  calling 
him."  Scudder  II,  115. 

This  poem  shows  the  scholar,  the  man  of  letters,  resisting 
for  love  of  his  books  the  call  of  the  out-of-doors.  It  is  inter 
esting  to  compare  with  it  Al  Fresco  (i.  e.  "In  the  Open  Air"), 
which  shows  the  nature-lover  triumphant;  in  which  the 
scholar  throws  aside,  for  a  day,  his  books  and  studies,  and 
takes  a  vacation  in  his  garden  and  orchard.  The  two  poems 
are  in  harmony  with  the  mood  of  the  prose  sketch  called  My 
Garden  Acquaintance,  in  which  Lowell  tells  something  of  the 
grounds  about  Elmwood  and  of  his  friendship  with  the  birds. 
Sonnet  XXV  also  is  interesting  in  this  connection,  as  show 
ing,  in  a  less  playful  manner,  that  Lowell  felt  there  is  no  real 
conflict  between  the  mind  of  the  scholar  and  the  spirit  of  the 
nature-lover. 

MY  GARDEN  ACQUAINTANCE 

I.  Lowell's  home,  "Elmwood,  "was  a  large,  old-fashioned 
New  England  house,  surrounded  by  extensive  lawns  and  gar 
dens.    In  these  grounds  Lowell  loved  to  work,  being  by  turns 
a  student  and  a  horticulturist.     (See  The  Nightingale  in  the 
Study  and  Al  Fresco.)     The  most  delightful  literary  product 
of  his  gardening  is  My  Garden  Acquaintance,  a  charmingly 
familiar  essay,  rilled  with  bright  humor,  genial  comment  on 
life,  and  a  pervading  atmosphere  of  refinement  and  of  easy, 
natural  scholarship. 

II.  The  introduction  runs  through  five  paragraphs.    It  is 
based  on  a  favorite  book  of  Lowell's  earlier  years.     Gilbert 
White  (1720-1793)  lived  in  the  parish  of  Selbourne,  bordering 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  219 

on  the  county  of  Surrey,  England.  He  is  the  "Fellow  of 
Oriel"  College,  Oxford,  mentioned  in  the  first  paragraph. 
Read  the  five  introductory  paragraphs,  and  be  prepared  to 
state  the  notion  you  get  from  them  of  White's  book.  What 
characteristics  did  Lowell  find  particularly  pleasing?  If  pos 
sible,  read  some  of  White's  Natural  History  yourself,  and  see 
whether  you  enjoy  it  as  much  as  Lowell  did. 

Paragraph  1.  Explain  the  figure  in  "  ambles  along  on  his 
hobby-horse."  —  Barrington  and  Pennant  were  English  nat 
uralists  contemporary  with  White.  —  Walton  was  the  author 
of  The  Compleat  Angler,  a  book  containing  some  charming 
descriptions  of  English  country.  —  Cowper's  Task  (VI,  560) 
contains  some  famous  lines  on  kindness  to  animals: 

I  would  not  enter  on  my  list  of  friends, 

(Though  graced  with  polished  manners  and  fine  sense, 

Yet  wanting  sensibility,)  the  man 

Who  needlessly  sets  foot  upon  a  worm. 

—  Refer  to  the  date  of  White  and  explain  the  significance  of 
the  allusion  to  Burgoyne,  and  its  relation  to  the  sentence 
before  it.  —  La  Grande  Chartreuse  was  a  monastery  in  France, 
whose  inmates  were  entirely  separated  from  the  world.  — 
W^hat  does  this  paragraph  tell  you  of  White's  interests? 

Paragraph  2.  Do  you,  too,  find  amusing  such  serious  in 
terest  in  trivial  things?  Does  Lowell  in  this  paragraph  em 
ploy  consciously  the  same  humorous  method?  How  does 
he  use  the  pun  for  humorous  effect?  Do  you  get  the  point 
of  the  joke  in  his  wonder  "if  metaphysicians  have  no  hind 
toes"?  —  Willoughby  and  Ray  were  British  scientists. — 
Explain  the  allusion  to  Diogenes. 

Paragraph  3.  This  essay  was  written  in  1869.  What 
significance  had  the  word  reconstruction  then?  To  what 


220         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

other  questions  and  debates  of  the  day  does  Lowell  refer 
here?  —  Contrast  instinct  in  the  second  sentence  with  reason 
in  the  fifth.  What  sarcasm  is  there  in  the  figure  with  which 
the  fifth  sentence  ends?  —  Lowell  was  born  in  the  Elmwood 
home  and  lived  there  all  his  life.  —  "Martin"  was  the 
manufacturer  of  White's  thermometer.  Natural  History, 
Letter  LIX:  "Martin's,  which  was  absurdly  graduated  to 
only  4°  above  zero,  sunk  quite  into  the  brass  guard  of  the 
ball,  so  that,  when  the  weather  became  most  interesting, 
this  was  useless."  —  What  puns  here  on  graduation  and 
Mercury?  —  For  the  quotation,  see  Marlowe's  Jew  of  Malta,. 

i,  i. 

Paragraph  4.  Lowell  suggests  the  value  of  daily  reports 
by  a  weather  bureau,  not  systematically  organized  by  the 
government  till  four  years  later.  —  What  is  the  writer's 
feeling  about  newspaper  prophecies  and  their  value?  About 
the  economic  wisdom  of  some  Members  of  Congress?  Cloaca 
Maxima  means  "great  sewer." 

Paragraph  5.  This  paragraph  is  transitional,  bridging 
over  from  thoughts  suggested  by  White  to  the  observations 
of  the  writer. 

III.  The  subject  matter  of  the  essay  proper  has  been 
stated  in  the  transitional  paragraph;  it  had  already  been 
suggested  in  the  title. 

Paragraph  6.  What  popular  error  about  animals  does 
Lowell  attack?  What  arguments  does  he  advance  to  dis 
prove  it?  What  observation  has  he  made  on  the  time  of 
bird  migrations?  Can  he  explain  their  choice  of  homes? 
The  line  of  poetry  quoted  near  the  middle  of  the  para 
graph  is  from  Chaucer's  Prologue  to  The  Canterbury  Tales, 
line  11. 

Paragraphs  7,  8.  What  are  the  faults  of  the  robin?    The 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  221 

virtues?    Is  Lowell  willing  to  have  him  in  his  garden?  — • 
The  lines  from  Emerson's  Titmouse  read, 

For  well  the  soul,  if  stout  within, 
Can  arm  impregnably  the  skin. 

—  Robert  Bloomfield  was  a  shoemaker-poet',  not  ranked  very 
high.  —  The  Poor  Richard  ethics  were  of  the  thrifty,  util 
itarian  sort,  not  idealistic  nor  spiritual;  the  robin,  unlike  his 
"  cousins,"  has  nothing  inspired  about  him.  —  Notice  the 
echo  of  Burns's  "for  a'  that  and  a'  that."  —  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson  was  noted  for  his  bad  table  manners.  —  Explain 
"right  of  eminent  domain."  —  For  the  allusion  to  the  Jewish 
spies  see  Numbers  13.  —  The  Duke  of  Wellington  fought 
Napoleon's  forces  in  Spain  before  he  did  at  Waterloo.  —  The 
"fair  Fidele"  is  evidently  Mrs.  Lowell.  —  Observe  the  pun 
with  which  paragraph  7  ends.  —  Why  does  Lowell  compare 
the  robins  to  fire-worshippers?  —  The  second  sentence  of 
paragraph  8  is  an  echo  of  Wordsworth's 

There  are  a  thousand  feeding  like  one, 

from  Written  in  March.     In  the  third  perhaps  there  is  a 
reminiscence  of  Shelley's  Skylark, 

We  look  before  and  after, 
And  pine  for  what  is  not. 

—  Pecksniff  was  a  hypocrite  in  Dickens'  Martin  Chuzzlewit. 
The  robin  pretends  to  be  as  ascetic  as  a  hermit,  whose  vows 
forbid  him  to  use  flesh  foods.     Explain  "lobby  member." 

Paragraph  10.  The  familiar  stanza, 

Birds  in  their  little  nests  agree, 
And  'tis  a  shameful  sight 
When  children  of  one  family 
Fall  out  and  chide  and  fight, 


222         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

is  from  Dr.  Watt's  poem  on  Love  between  Brothers  and  Sis 
ters.  —  Explain  "  armed  neutrality."  —  The  quotation  is 
from  Shakespeare's  King  Henry  V,  1,  2. 

Paragraph  11.  What  sort  of  people  is  Lowell  making  sport 
of  in  the  sentence  about  "  the  famous  Battle  of  the  Pines  "?  — 
What  would  be  the  moral  of  ^Esop's  fable  about  the  jays? 
Compose  the  fable,  using  the  material  Lowell  supplies 
here.  —  The  last  sentence  parodies  and  puns  on  Goldsmith's 

And  fools  who  came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray, 

in  The  Deserted  Village, 

Paragraph  12.  Shady  Hill  was  the  home  of  Lowell's  friend 
Charles  Eliot  Norton,  at  this  time  in  Europe. 

Paragraph  13.  Saint  Preux  was  the  lover  of  Julie,  heroine 
of  Rousseau's  La  Nouvelle  Heloise  —  a  very  pattern  of  a 
lover.  What  is  the  point  of  comparison  between  the  crow 
trying  to  be  tenderly  sentimental  and  a  Mississippi  boatman 
quoting  Tennyson?  —  The  Kanakas  were  the  aborigines  of 
the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Paragraph  14.  Edward  E.  Hale  was  a  Boston  clergyman, 
author  of  The  Man  without  a  Country. 

Paragraph  15.  Figaro  is  a  character  in  the  plays  of  Beau- 
marchais.  He  is  gay,  lively,  talkative,  and  full  of  strata 
gems.  —  Mr.  H.  Dixon  wrote  a  book  of  travels  called  New 
America.  The  Oneida  Community  in  Central  New  York, 
like  the  Mormons  of  Salt  Lake  City,  held  peculiar  views  on 
marriage.  What  feeling  does  Lowell  express  in  the  sentence, 
"  An  intelligent  .  .  .  matters"?  —  Chateaubriand  was  a 
French  essayist.  The  quotation  from  his  letters  (written  in 
America)  means,  "my  horses  grazing  at  some  distance." 
Notice  the  pun  in  "mount  the  high  horse." 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  223 

Paragraph  18.  The  truce  of  God  was  established  by  the 
Church  in  that  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  when  secular  govern 
ments  were  weak  and  miscellaneous  warfare  common.  It 
was  a  suspension  of  feuds  and  hostilities  over  holy  days, 
including  Sunday. 

Paragraph  19.  Mount  Auburn  is  a  cemetery  in  Cambridge, 
not  far  from  Elmwood.  " Sweet"  is  a  reminiscence  of 
Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village, 

Sweet  Auburn!  loveliest  village  of  the  plain. 

-Eheu  fugaces!  is,  being  translated,  "Alas,  transitory 
things!"  —  Fresh  Pond  is  near  Cambridge.  —  Ellengowan  is 
a  ruined  gypsy  village  in  Scott's  Guy  Mannering. 

Paragraph  20.  Trouvaille  means  "a  find."  Captain  Kidd 
was  a  famous  pirate,  whose  treasure,  though  supposedly 
buried  somewhere  on  our  Atlantic  coast,  has  never  been 
found.  —  By  "the  most  poetic  of  ornithologists"  Lowell 
means  the  Wilson  for  whom  this  thrush  was  named.  —  Lowell 
coins  the  verb  oologize;  what  does  it  mean?  How  did  the  mess 
mates  of  the  Ancient  Mariner  feel  toward  him?  See  Cole 
ridge's  poem.  —  The  Trastevere  is  the  workingman's  quarter 
in  Rome.  A  woman  of  this  quarter  (a  "  Trasteverina  ") 
not  infrequently  sits  on  the  doorstep  to  remove  vermin  from 
the  head  of  a  child.  —  Eheu  means  "Alas!"  Ovid  was  a 
Latin  poet;  his  Metamorphoses  is  his  most  famous  work,  an 
account  of  the  change  of  human  beings  to  animals  or  plants. 
The  plaintive  note  of  this  bird  would  have  suggested  to  Ovid 
some  pathetic  tale  of  transformation. 

Paragraph  21.  The  "involuntary  pun"  is  between  the 
words  mansuetude  and  accustomed.  —  How  did  Penn  treat 
the  Indians?  How  does  Lowell  say  the  Puritans  treated 


224         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

them?  Hebraism  means  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible,  the  Old 
Testament  having  been  written  in  Hebrew.  —  Whom  does 
Lowell  mean  by  "featherless  bipeds"? 

IV.  What  attitude  has  Lowell  toward  the  birds  and 
squirrels  in  his  garden?  Does  he  talk  of  them  as  if  they  were 
human  beings?  Is  this  essay  interesting  to  you?  Explain 
your  answer.  Do  you  find  in  it  any  of  the  qualities  Lowell 
admired  in  White's  Natural  History?  Is  Lowell's  humor 
unconscious?  How  does  this  essay  show  the  writer's  scholar 
ship?  Is  it  in  any  way  pedantic? 

THE  VISION  OF  SIR  LAUNFAL 

I.  The  old  romances  tell  us  that  the  Holy  Grail  was  the 
cup  from  which  Christ  drank  at  the  Last  Supper  (St.  Mat 
thew  24:  26ff.),  and  in  which  Joseph  of  Arimathea  caught  the 
blood  from  His  side,  as  He  hung  on  the  Cross.  Joseph  be 
came  a  missionary  to  Britain,  and  carried  with  him  the  sacred 
cup.  There  it  remained  many  years  in  charge  of  his  descend 
ants.  Finally  one  of  them  broke  the  monastic  vows  that 
were  upon  him,  and  the  Grail  disappeared.  The  young 
knights  of  romance  often  undertook  the  adventure  of  finding 
it,  but  no  one  was  fit  to  behold  the  sacred  symbol  who  was 
not  spotless  in  heart  and  life.  Their  quest,  therefore,  was 
usually  unsuccessful.  Sir  Launfal  makes  the  quest  of  the 
Holy  Grail  his  first  important  adventure.  The  choice  of 
subject  throws  Lowell's  time  back  into  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  justifies  the  use  of  many  archaic  words.  The  tale,  how 
ever,  is  Lowell's  own.  There  was  a  Sir  Launfal  in  the  old 
romances,  but  his  story  was  not  at  all  like  this.  (See  Launfal 
in  Four  Lais  of  Marie  de  France,  in  the  series  called  "  Arthur 
ian  Romances  Unrepresented  in  Malory's  Morte  d' Arthur," 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL 


225 


published  by  Nutt,  London;  sold  in  America  by  Messrs. 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.)  Lowell's  moral  would  hardly 
have  been  possible  in  a  mediaeval  tale;  for,  in  spite  of 
their  boasted  humility,  the  knights  were  full  of  the  pride 
of  rank. 

II.  The  poem  is  a  narrative  in  two  parts,  each  part  pre 
ceded  by  a  " prelude."    The  use  of  preludes  is  excellent  in  this 
poem,  for  many  years  are  supposed  to  elaspe  between  the 
first  part  of  the  narrative  and  the  second,  and  the  prelude 
to  Part  II  makes  the  necessary  break  in  narration.    They  are 
also  good  because  the  description  of  nature  in  each  prelude 
strengthens  the  atmosphere  of  the  part  of  the  narrative  that 
follows  it. 

We  shall  study  the  entire  narrative  before  we  take  up  either 
prelude. 

III.  Read  Part  I  and  Part  II.    Point  out  the  line  where 
Launfal  is  said  to  go  to  sleep;  and  the  one  where  he  is  said  to 
wake  up.    Justify  the  use  of  "  Vision"  in  the  title.    Express 
the  moral  thought  of  the  poem  in  your  own  words.    Do  you 
think  the  two  verses,  Matthew  25 : 40,  45,  summarize  morally 
the  two  parts  of  the  narrative?    You  have  noticed  that  the 
poem  is  a  story  about  life,  and  yet  that  the  nature  element 
is  very  strong  in  it,  and  re-enforces  the  atmosphere.    With 
the  story  clearly  in  mind,  study  the  following :  — 


Parti 


Atmosphere 


Contrast 


Youth, 

Launfal  (physically) 
Summer 

Landscape 

Castle 
Leper 
Launfal  (spiritually) 


light 
life 

warmth 
joy 

cold,  gloom 

darkness 

disease 


226 


STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Part  II 


Atmosphere 


Contrast 


[Old  Age 

Launfal  (physically) 
\      Leper  IV-VI 
Winter 

Landscape 

Stanza  III 
Launfal  (spiritually) 
Castle  and  Launfal  in  X 
Leper  in  VII,  VIII 


cold 

darkness 
weakness 
poverty 

brightness 

sunshine 

warmth 

beauty 

gladness 


This  is  a  poem  with  a  happy  ending:  light,  life,  and  joy  win 
for  themselves  everything  that  has  been  under  the  power  of 
darkness,  disease,  and  cold  —  Launfal's  heart,  the  Leper,  the 
castle. 

IV.  Read  the  narrative  again,  this  time  to  understand 
every  word,  figure,  and  allusion.  Use  the  following  notes  and 
questions : 

Line  100:  This  was  a  common  vow  for  a  knight  to  take  on 
beginning  a  quest. 

Line  102:  Begin  means  "have,"  as  sometimes  in  early 
English.  "I  will  never  sleep  in  a  bed  till  I  have  found  the 
Grail." 

Line  103:  Rushes  were  spread  over  the  floor  before  the 
day  of  carpets.  Line  104:  He  superstitiously  looked  for  a 
dream  to  guide  him  in  starting  on  his  quest. 

Line  115:  A  metaphor  begins  in  " outpost"  and  continues 
through  the  stanza.  The  army  of  Summer  besieges  this 
outpost  of  Winter.  Explain  the  figure  in  detail. 

Line  130:  Maiden  means  " young,"  "on  his  first  adven 
ture." 

Line  131:  Imagine  the  brilliant  Launfal  framed  in  the 
dark  arch  of  the  castle  gate. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  227 

Lines  132-136  continue  the  figure  of  war  above  (lines 
115  etc.). 

Line  138:  Maiden  means  "new,"  "unused;"  compare 
line  130. 

Lines  142-144 :  To  what  is  the  castle  compared? 

Line  147:  Explain  "made  morn." 

Line  149:  "Sate"  is  an  old  form  of  the  verb,  equivalent  to 
sat. 

Line  166:  See  the  story  of  the  Widow's  mite.    Mark  12:42. 

Line  167:  In  one  of  his  letters  Lowell  'says,  "God  is  the 
secret,  the  spring,  source  and  center  of  all  Beauty."  The 
divinity  of  our  common  humanity  is  the  thread  that  is  "  out  of 
sight,"  and  yet  unites  us  all  in  one  brotherhood,  as  a  thread 
holds  together  a  necklace  of  beads.  We  are  kind  to  each  other 
not  merely  because  it  is  duty,  but  because  we  feel  kindly  and 
sympathetic.  Duty  is  a  good  motive,  but  love  is  a  far  higher 
one. 

Line  171:  Explain  the  figure. 

Line  172:  What  does  "store"  mean? 

Lines  240-241:  Contrast  with  line  113. 

Lines  242-243:  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Line  244:  Contrast  with  lines  109,  111. 

Line  246:  For  "again"  refer  to  line  140. 

Lines  247-249:  Explain  the  metaphor  comparing  morning 
to  an  old  person. 

Line  252 :  Compare  this  Launf al  with  the  one  described  in 
Part  I,  Stanza  III. 

Line  254:  Recked  means  "cared  for." 

Line  255 :  Knights  engaged  in  holy  adventures  often  wore 
on  their  armor  the  sign  of  the  cross;  for  example,  those  who 
'went  on  the  Crusades. 

Lines  56,  57 :  Explain  the  meaning. 


228         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Line  259:  Explain  the  metaphor  in  "mail"  and  "barbed." 

Line  261 :  He  tried  to  keep  himself  warm  by  thinking  of  a 
visit  he  had  made,  in  his  quest,  to  a  warm  country — a  desert. 
Notice  the  progress  of  the  caravan  toward  him.  In  the  dis 
tance  it  is  only  a  crooked  black  line;  gradually  it  approaches 
till  he  can  count  the  camels.  Explain  the  beautiful  descrip 
tion  of  the  oasis  in  simile  and  metaphor  (lines  269-272). 

Line  273:  Before  the  imaginary  camels  reach  the  imagi 
nary  spring,  Launfal  is  wakened  from  his  day-dream  by  the 
leper's  voice. 

Lines  276,  278 :  The  two  similes  are  explained  by  the  nature 
of  the  leper's  disease;  it  turns  the  sufferer's  skin  white. 
Line  279:  "Desolate"  because  lepers  are  outcasts. 

Lines  280ff.:  This  time  Launfal  recognizes  in  the  leper  a 
brother  man  —  an  image  of  the  Perfect  Man.  Explain  the 
metonymy  in  lines  282-285.  In  this  prayer  (lines  286,  287) 
Launfal  responds  to  the  leper's  appeal  (line  273). 

Line  288:  The  leper's  look  accuses  Launfal  of  his  former 
pride. 

Line  290:  Compare  line  158. 

Line  294 :  Think  of  what  you  have  read  in  the  Bible  of  the 
Oriental  custom  of  putting  ashes  on  the  head  as  a  sign  of 
grief  or  repentance,  and  explain  the  metonymy. 

Lines  300,  301 :  Explain  the  meaning. 

Line  307:  See  Acts  3:2,  10.  Pillars  are  among  the  usual 
decorations  of  beautiful  church  doors. 

Line  308:  See  John  14:  6;  10:  9.  The  One  who  has  taught 
man,  by  word  and  by  example,  the  way  to  make  himself 
more  like  the  divine. 

Lines  310-313:  Explain  the  figures. 

Line  314:  Force  of  the  contradiction  in  "softer"  and 
"silence."  Notice  the  melody  of  this  passage. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  229 

Line  315:  See  John  6 :  20. 

Lines  320,  321 :  See  Matthew  26:  26-28. 

Lines  326,  327:  Explain  the  meaning. 

Line  328:  Refer  to  line  108. 

Line  329 :  Explain  the  meaning. 

Line  330 :     Idle  means  ' '  useless. ' '    Explain  line  331. 

Line  332:  What  "stronger  mail"  can  one  wear?  See 
Ephesians  6:  14-17. 

Lines  334ff.:  Launfal  showed  by  his  actions  that  he  had 
understood  the  lesson  of  his  dream. 

Line  337:  See  line  142. 

Lines  338-341:  See  line  119  and  the  metaphor  following. 

Line  343 :  Observe  the  personification. 

Line  345:  The  "hall"  was  the  large,  central,  common  room 
of  the  castle;  the  "bowers"  the  more  private  rooms. 

Line  346:  "North  Countree"  (see  also  line  116)  is  a  com 
mon  expression  in  the  old  ballads  —  one  of  the  many  ar 
chaisms  brought  into  the  poem  because  of  its  medieval 
motif. 

V.  We  have  now  to  study  the  preludes.  The  poem  opens 
with  eight  lines  that  explain  the  value  of  a  prelude  in  leading 
up  to  the  mood  of  the  work  to  follow.  We  are  likely  to 
associate  the  word  "prelude"  with  music,  and  Lowell  there 
fore  discusses  the  prelude  from  the  musical  point  of  view. 
The  organist  is  extemporizing;  he  feels  his  theme  vaguely 
(line  2) ;  as  he  goes  on,  his  theme  grows  more  definite  in  his 
mind;  and  his  prelude  leads  gradually  up  to  the  body  of  his 
composition.  A  beautiful  metaphor  in  lines  7,  8  compares 
with  the  dawn  of  the  morning  the  gradual  approach  of  the  pre 
lude  to  the  main  composition.  Lowell's  preludes,  ought  then, 
to  feel  for  his  theme,  dimly  at  first,  by  producing  the  atmos 
phere  of  the  following  part,  and  to  lead  gradually  up  to  the 


230         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

story  of  Sir  Launfal.  The  preludes  emphasize  the  nature  ele 
ment  which  does  so  much  to  give  atmosphere  to  the  narrative 
we  have  already  studied. 

VI.  The  first  prelude,  dealing  with  nature  and  emphasiz 
ing  the  atmosphere  of  Part  I,  must  have  summer  for  its  sub 
ject.  Read  it  with  the  following  outline:  — 

1.  Nature  inspires  man  (lines  9-12), 

a.  to  better  life  (lines  13-20)  ; 

b.  without  pay  (lines  21-32). 

2.  She  inspires  him  through  the  June  day. 

a.  Description  of  a  June  day  (lines  33-60). 

b.  Effect  on  man's  character  (lines  61-92) : 

(1)  makes  him  happier, 

(2)  makes  him  better; 

(a)  reminds  Launfal  of  his  vow  to  seek  the 

Grail. 

Think  the  prelude  through  once  more,  with  the  outline,  and 
try  to  see  how  it  begins  "doubtfully  and  far  away,"  with  the 
general  influence  of  nature;  then  through  the  description  of 
summer  and  a  statement  of  its  influence  on  the  moral  nature 
of  man  in  general,  brings  us  up  gradually  to  the  story  of 
Launfal.  The  last  two  lines  form  a  transition  to  the  narrative. 

Read  the  prelude  again  carefully,  with  these  notes  and 
questions :  — 

Lines  9,  10:  Wordsworth's  Ode  on  Intimations  of  Im 
mortality  expresses  the  thought  that  our  souls,  having  come 
from  heaven,  are  nearer  heaven  in  infancy  than  in  later  life. 

The  kernel  of  the  poem  is  in  the  fifth  stanza. 

Our  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting: 
The  Soul  that  rises  with  us,  our  life's  Star, 
Hath  had  elsewhere  its  setting, 
And  cometh  from  afar: 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  231 

Not  in  entire  forgetfulness, 

And  not  in  utter  nakedness, 
But  trailing  clouds  of  glory  do  we  come 

From  God,  who  is  our  home: 
Heaven  lies  about  us  in  our  infancy! 
Shades  of  the  prison-house  begin  to  close 

Upon  the  growing  Boy, 
But  He  beholds  the  light,  and  whence  it  flows, 

He  sees  it  in  his  joy; 
The  Youth,  who  daily  farther  from  the  East 

Must  travel,  still  is  Nature's  Priest, 

And  by  the  vision  splendid 

Is  on  his  way  attended; 
At  length  the  Man  perceives  it  die  away, 
And  fade  into  the  light  of  common  day. 

Lowell  does  not  believe  that  this  is  true  (lines  11,  12). 
In  spite  of  our  faults  and  imperfections  we  feel  every  day 
high  influence.  Whom  did  Moses  meet  on  Mount  Sinai? 
(Exodus  19.)  See  also  Lowell's  Letters,  I,  139,  and  the  refer 
ence  to  Sinai  in  Bibliolatres. 

Lines  13-20:  Five  objects  or  forces  of  nature  are  mentioned 
as  inspiring  us  in  mature  life:  the  skies  with  their  attitude 
of  tender  care;  the  winds  with  their  warning  and  exhorta 
tions;  the  mountain,  inciting  us  to  be  courageous;  the  wood 
with  its  blessing;  the  restless  sea,  urging  us  to  be  active  and 
energetic.  Explain  "druid"  (line  17). 

Lines  21-24:  In  this  world  we  have  to  pay  even  for  things 
we  do  not  wish  to  have.  Lines  25-28:  At  Vanity  Fair  we 
pay  good  gold  for  worthless  things:  our  lives  for  a  little 
notice  and  fame,  such  as  was  given  of  old  to  the  court  jester 
with  his  cap  and  bells;  our  souPs  salvation  for  useless,  tem 
porary  pleasures.  Lines  29-32:  The  influence  of  nature 
costs  nothing,  and  is  worth  more  than  all  the  rest. 

Lines  35,  36:  Explain  the  metaphor. 


232         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Lines  39-42:  Explain  the  meaning. 

Line  43:  " Flush"  refers  to  the  colors  of  flowers  and  blos 
soms. 

Line  46:  Explain  the  figure. 

Line  52:  What  is  the  antecedent  of  "it"? 

Lines  53-55:  Explain  the  meaning. 

Line  56:  What  does  "nice"  mean? 

Lines  57-60:  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Lines  6 Iff. :  Has  June  ever  affected  you  in  this  way? 

Line  78:  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Line  87:  Why  "unscarred"? 

Lines  91-93:  Explain  the  metaphor. 

This  prelude  is  not  the  only  place  in  which  Lowell  has  ex 
pressed  his  love  for  the  month  of  June.  If  you  have  time, 
you  should  read  also  Under  the  Willows,  Al  Fresco,  and  The 
Nightingale  in  the  Study.  This  preference  was  well-known 
among  his  friends.  Holmes  began  a  poem  to  Lowell  with, 

This  is  your  month,  the  month  of  'perfect  days.' 

—  HOLMES  :  To  James  Russell  Lowell. 

The  influence  of  nature  on  the  soul  is  discussed  in  the 
first  stanza  of  Lowell's  Freedom,  written  about  the  same 
time  as  Sir  Launfal.  In  Lowell's  Letters  (I,  164)  we  find  the 
following  passage:  "This  same  name  of  God  is  written  all 
over  the  world  in  little  phenomena  that  occur  under  our  eyes 
every  moment,  and  I  confess  that  I  feel  very  much  inclined 
to  hang  my  head  with  Pizarro  when  I  cannot  translate  those 
hieroglyphics  into  my  own  vernacular." 

VII.  The  prelude  to  Part  II  deals  with  winter,  as  the  nature 
element  of  Part  II  is  represented  by  winter.  The  prelude  is 
not  altogether  gloomy,  though  it  is  wintry,  because  gloom 
would  foretell  a  sad  ending.  The  good  cheer  in  the  castle 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  233 

foreshadows  the  hospitality  which  Launfal  shows  after  he 
wakens  (stanza  X).  Study  the  prelude  with  the  following 
notes  and  questions :  — 

Line  174:     What  effect  has  the  sentence-inversion? 

Line  179:  Note  the  harmony  of  sound  and  sense. 

Lines  181-210:  These  lines  are  constructed  on  a  metaphor 
comparing  the  brook  to  an  architect,  and  the  ice  above  it  to 
a  roof.  Mark  all  the  words  of  building  and  architecture  that 
belong  in  this  figure.  Think  of  the  shapes  and  figures  you 
have  seen  in  thin  ice  covering  ponds  —  or  even  puddles  of 
water  beside  the  road.  Use  your  dictionary  freely  for  archi 
tectural  terms,  and  remember  that  the  material  used  by 
Architect  Brook  was  all  ice;  then  these  lines  will  be  clear  to 
you.  Explain  lines  205-210  by  referring  to  lines  187-196. 
In  his  Letters  (I,  164)  Lowell  says  he  found  this  picture  on  an 
evening  walk  to  Watertown,  "with  the  new  moon  before  me 
and  a  sky  exactly  like  that  in  Page's  evening  landscape. 
Orion  was  rising  behind  me,  and,  as  I  stood  on  the  hill  just 
before  you  enter  the  village,  the  stillness  of  the  fields  around 
me  was  delicious,  broken  only  by  the  tinkle  of  a  little  brook, 
which  runs  too  swiftly  for  Frost  to  catch  it."  See  also  the 
winter  picture  in  An  Indian  Summer  Reverie,  lines  148-196. 

Line  212:  Explain  the  figure. 

Lines  215,  216:  What  figure  in  "gulf "  and  "tide"? 

Lines  217,  218:  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Lines  219,  220:  Explain  the  figure. 

Lines  221-224:  Explain  the  figure  that  describes  the  move 
ment  of  the  sparks  through  the  soot  on  the  inside  of  the 
chimney. 

Line  226:  In  this  prelude  we  find  the  name  of  Launfal 
used  earlier  than  in  the  first  prelude  (line  94).  We  are 
already  interested  in  him,  and  ready  to  continue  the  story 


234         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

of  his  adventures.  What  word  tells  you  that  many  years 
have  elapsed  since  he  set  out,  a  young  knight,  to  seek  the 
Grail?  What  figure  is  found  in  lines  226-232?  Notice 
harmony  of  sound  and  thought  in  these  lines. 

Line  233:  Explain  the  simile.  Does  a  sudden,  loud  noise 
ever  affect  one  as  a  sudden,  bright  light  does? 

Lines  238,  239 :  Explain  the  metaphor. 

Lines  174-180  have  expressed  something  of  the  desolation 
of  winter.  The  picture  of  the  brook  is  all  beauty.  The  pic 
ture  of  the  castle  gives  the  gay,  social  aspect  of  winter.  The 
last  paragraph  of  the  prelude,  of  which  Launfal  is  the  central 
figure,  comes  back  to  the  note  of  desolation.  This  is  made 
necessary  by  his  condition  and  by  the  approach  to  Part  II, 
which  opens  most  gloomily.  The  gaiety  inside  the  castle 
makes  the  darkness  outside  only  more  cold  and  lonely  by 
contrast. 

VIII.  Read  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  from  beginning  to 
end,  aloud.  Think  constantly  of  expressing  the  meaning  you 
have  found  in  it,  and  also  of  bringing  out  the  music  of  the 
poetry. 

THE  PRESENT  CRISIS 

I.  This  poem  (1844)  was  inspired  by  the  questions  that 
came  up  in  connection  with  the  proposed  annexation  of 
Texas.  If  Texas  should  be  annexed  to  the  United  States,  the 
slave  territory  would  be  extended,  and  the  slavery  faction 
would  become  stronger.  The  Abolitionists,  therefore,  op 
posed  the  annexation.  The  poem  calls  on  voters  to  stand 
for  the  right,  knowing  that  right  will  win  at  last.  It  exhorts 
men  to  put  themselves  into  the  class  of  heroes,  who  have 
sacrificed  their  own  present  advantage  for  the  good  of  the 
race. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  235 

For  Lowell's  interest  in  abolition,  see  his  biographies. 
A  "crisis"  is  a  time  of  decision  —  a  moment  when  condi 
tions  may  change  for  better  or  for  worse. 

II.  Read  the  poem  with  the  following  outline: 

Theme :  It  is  every  person's  duty  to  help  on  the  work  that 
his  generation  has  to  do  for  the  advancement  of  society. 

1.  Mankind  are  one  in  spirit  (lines  1-20). 

a.  All  feel  the  good  done  in  one  place; 

b.  All  feel  the  evil  done  in  one  place. 

2.  There  comes  to  every  man  and  nation  a  crisis  —  a  time 

to  decide  for  or  against  Truth  (lines  21-40). 
a.  Truth  will  always  win  in  the  end. 

3.  If  we  choose  the  evil,  we  endanger  those  that  come  after 

us  (lines  41-50). 

4.  It  is  noble  to  side  with  a  truth  that  is  unpopular  and 

has  yet  to  fight  its  way  to  acceptance  (lines  51-70). 

a.  The  heroes  of  earth  have  done  so; 

b.  Progress  could  not  be  made  without  such  heroes. 

5.  Every  generation  has  a  new  test  of  its  devotion  to  truth 

(lines  71-90). 

a.  We  are  not  brave  nor  progressive  if  we  simply  agree 
to  truths  already  accepted  by  society. 

III.  Possibly  the  poem  seems  a  little  difficult  to  under 
stand  in  detail.    Lowell  was  so  full  of  enthusiasm  that  his 
mind  hurried  from  figure  to  figure,  and  he  has  not  given  us, 
on  this  subject  on  which  he  felt  so  deeply,  as  smooth  and 
rhetorically  logical  a  poem  as  he  might  write  in  a  calmer 
mood.     There  is  wonderful  force,  however,  in  the  crowded 
metaphors  and  in  the  vigorous  lines  —  a  force  that  comes 
not  from  polished  rhetoric,  but  from  the  intense  moral  feeling 
of  the  poet.    The  following  notes  will  help  you  to  understand 
some  of  the  more  difficult  lines. 


236         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Lines  1,  2:  Notice  the  metaphor.  Line  3:  The  "East"  is 
the  place  of  dawn.  Line  4:  Manhood  includes  self-direction, 
freedom.  Line  5:  Explain  the  metaphor  comparing  liberty 
to  the  blossom  of  the  century-plant. 

Line  1 1 :  The  third  stanza  is  the  reverse  of  the  first.  Com 
pare  the  two,  line  for  line.  Line  13:  "His  sympathies  with 
God"  are  his  aspirations  for  a  fuller  life.  Line  15:  Without 
the  soul  of  a  man  (self-directing,  free)  the  slave  is  no  better 
than  a  corpse  —  less  noble  than  the  dust  from  which  he  was 
made. 

Line  6:  Return,  now,  to  the  second  stanza,  which  con 
tinues  the  thought  of  the  first.  The  metaphor  compares  the 
success  of  a  reform  to  the  birth  of  a  child  into  the  world. 
Line  7:  Social  systems  are  completely  changed  by  some  re 
forms.  Line  9:  Nations  wondering  what  great  change  will 
come  next.  Line  10:  As  soon  as  one  reform  is  completed, 
another,  perhaps  a  greater,  begins  to  be  agitated. 

Line  16:  The  fourth  stanza  explains  the  facts  stated  in 
the  first  and  third.  Line  17:  The  figure  refers  to  the  tele 
graph.  Line  19:  Explain  "ocean-sundered."  What  figure  in 
"frame"  and  "fibers"?  "Joy"  refers  to  the  first  stanza, 
"shame"  to  the  third.  Line  20:  This  line  is  a  summary  of 
the  four  stanzas. 

Line  22:  Is  it  natural  to  personify  Truth  and  Falsehood 
here?  Line  23:  People  revealed ,  themselves  as  good  or  evil 
by  taking  part  for  or  against  the  Messiah.  Line  24 :  Matthew 
25:32,  33.  Line  25:  The  decision  made  at  the  moment  of 
crisis  can  never  be  changed;  it  becomes  history. 

Line  26:  Party  is  "side."  Line  27:  Doom  is  "judgment." 
If  one  does  not  accept  the  good,  he  is  judged.  Luke  9:  5. 

Lines  31,  32:  We  know  little  about  the  past.  A  few  im 
portant  events  and  movements  are  recorded;  they  show  in 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  237 

the  sea  of  oblivion  as  islands,  the  tops  of  sunken  mountains, 
appear  above  the  water  of  the  ocean.  Line  33:  Busy  with 
the  affairs  of  the  world,  no  one  sees  the  need  of  social  reform. 
Line  34:  "Winnowers"  and  " chaff"  repeat  the  thought  of 
the  earlier  metaphor  "Messiah"  and  "goats"  (lines  23,  24). 
Explain.  Line  35 :  No  one  realizes  that  the  decision  is  so  im 
portant  till  it  has  been  made. 

Line  36:  "Avenger"  of  wrong.  Line  37:  Old  social  sys 
tems  and  the  better  order  of  things.  The  Word  is  "  Messiah  " 
again.  John  1:1.  Do  you  find  this  true  in  the  history  of 
human  progress?  Line  38 :  Is  a  new  truth  always  persecuted 
before  it  prevails?  With  lines  39,  40  compare  lines  28-30. 

Lines  41:  Compare  line  35.  Line  42:  Explain  the  meta 
phor.  Line  43 :  Compare  line  33  —  our  absorption  in  worldly 
affairs.  Line  44 :  The  great  oracle  (line  43)  was  the  one  that 
lived  in  the  cave  at  Delphi,  Greece.  What  is  this  voice  whis 
pering  in  the  soul?  Does  a  compromise  usually  strengthen 
the  wrong  side?  How  much  harder,  then,  is  the  task  of 
crushing  the  stronger  evil  later! 

Line  46:  Thus  far  Lowell  has  been  stating  social  prin 
ciples.  Now  he  mentions  the  great  evil  of  his  day,  the 
specific  one  he  has  had  in  mind  all  the  time.  All  evils  are 
giants,  sons  of  Force  and  Ignorance,  but  slavery  is  most  cruel 
of  all.  You  can  find  a  description  of  the  terrible  Cyclops 
in  the  story  of  Ulysses  (Odysseus)  in  your  Greek  mythology. 
Is  it  true  that  evil  has  "drenched  the  earth  with  blood"? 
Destructive  Slavery  has  made  a  desert  about  himself,  and 
now  reaches  for  new  territory  —  tries  to  make  himself  strong 
enough  to  destroy  a  new  generation. 

Line  51:  Explain  the  figure.  Line  54:  Doubting  means 
"hesitating,"  till  the  struggle  is  over,  and  everyone  boasts  of 
holding  a  faith  that,  till  recently,  he  denied. 


238         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Line  57:  They  were  working  for  society,  not  for  them 
selves;  yet  society  killed  them.  Ads  7:54-60.  Line  58:  The 
beam  of  the  balance  of  justice;  compare  lines  28-30,  39-40. 
Lines  59,  60 :  They  foresee  the  triumph  of  their  cause  because 
they  are  mastered  by  a  divine  faith;  their  own  high  purpose 
gives  them  faith  in  other  men  and  in  the  moral  order  of  the 
universe. 

Line  61:  Is  this  history  —  have  " heretics"  been  burned 
for  every  advance  society  has  made?  Line  63:  The  "mounts 
of  anguish"  are  the  " Calvaries"  where  martyrs  have  suffered 
at  every  stage  of  the  race's  progress.  A  reformer  dies,  but 
he  does  not  turn  back  (line  62).  Each  generation  takes  one 
step  forward  in  social  progress.  Line  64:  Prophet-hearts 
foresee  the  triumph  (lines  58-60)  through  their  sympathy 
with  the  divine;  they  have  confidence  in  humanity  because 
of  their  own  worth. 

Line  66:  The  movement  of  the  race  is  always  forward. 
The  cause  that  calls  for  martyrs  today  offers  a  field  for  selfish 
mercenaries  and  traitors  tomorrow.  Matthew  26:14,  15. 
Line  68 :  But  there  is  still  place  for  work  and  suffering  in  front 
of  the  majority;  see  lines  61/62.  Lines  69,  70:  Finally  so 
ciety  comes  up  to  the  position  the  martyr  has  taken,  and 
makes  a  hero  of  him.  Explain  the  figure. 

Lines  71-73:  We  must  not  think  the  times  of  our  fathers 
were  good  enough  for  us  and  for  those  that  come  after  us;  we 
must  be  martyrs  and  heroes,  and  lead  forward.  Explain  the 
figures.  Lines  74,  75:  We  are  proud  of  our  New  England 
ancestry.  But  what  were  they  in  their  own  day?  Perse 
cuted  exiles,  outcasts  for  a  principle  now  established  in 
America. 

Line  76:  " Present"  in  their  day  —  not  satisfied  with  the 
social  conquests  of  the  past.  Define  "  iconoclast."  Line  77: 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  239 

Persecution  did  not  change  them.  Lines  78-80:  If  we  pro 
fess  only  the  truths  they  established,  we  are  false  to  the 
principle  of  social  progress,  which  drove  them  across  the  sea 
to  plant  a  freer  nation;  we  are  three'  hundred  years  behind 
the  times,  instead  of  leading  forward.  Explain  line  79. 

Line  81:  Traitors  to  their  principle  of  progress  when  we 
cling  to  their  time  instead  of  moving  on  to  our  own  present 
and  future.  Explain  the  figure  in  line  82.  Emphasize  "  new- 
lit."  Line  83:  Ought  we  to  be  shut  in  by  the  knowledge  and 
beliefs  of  earlier  days?  We  ought  to  know  more  than  our 
ancestors,  to  believe  better  than  they.  Lines  83-85:  Shall 
we  persecute  persons  who  refuse  to  cling  to  the  past?  Explain 
the  figure.  Line  86:  Uncouth  is  "out-of-date,"  "ridiculous." 
Line  88:  Emphasize  "before,"  as  you  emphasized  "in  front" 
in  line  68.  Emphasize  "ouselves,"  and  in  line  89  "our." 
"Pilgrims,"  i.  e.  leaders  of  a  new  movement;  "Mayflower," 
the  movement;  "winter" — the  Pilgrims  landed  in  Decem 
ber.  Line  90:  Explain  the  figure. 

IV.  Study  the  meter,  rime  and  stanza  of  the  poem.    Is  it 
at  all  irregular? 

V.  Read  the  poem  again  with  the  outline,  this  time  aloud. 
Memorize  five  sentences  or  parts  of  sentences  that  are,  you 
feel,  worth  remembering  all  your  life. 

VI.  This   poem   was    a   favorite   one   with   anti-slavery 
speakers.    Speaking  of  certain  lines,  George  William  Curtis 
said:  "Wendell  Phillips  winged  with  their  music  and  tipped 
with  their  flame  the  dart  of  his  fervid  appeal  and  manly 
scorn."     The  stanza  beginning  "For  humanity  sweeps  on 
ward"  was  used  by  Sumner  in  the  speech  that  provoked  the 
attack  of  Preston  Brooks.    See  Greenslet's  Lowell,  79,  80. 

The  poem  was  written  specifically  against  compromise  with 
the  slavery  power;  but  it  discusses  chiefly  a  universal  prin- 


240         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

ciple.     This  principle  is  contained  in  the  statement  of  the 
theme  above.    Find  it  in  the  poem,  in  Lowell's  words. 

VII.  Write  a  paragraph  on  what  seems  to  you  "The 
Present  Crisis"  of  the  year  in  which  you  study  this  poem: 
is  it  municipal  reform,  civil-service  reform,  some  industrial 
problem,  or  what?  Use  as  an  introduction  to  your  para 
graph  a  general  statement  of  one's  duty  to  society  —  the  uni 
versal  principle  which  Lowell  has  been  trying  to  impress  on  us, 
and  which  will  be  as  true  a  thousand  years  hence  as  it  is  now. 

ODE  RECITED  AT  THE  HARVARD  COMMEMORATION 

I.  The  occasion  of  this  poem  was  a  service  held  in  honor  of 
the  Harvard  men  who  had  been  killed  in  the  Civil  War.    The 
service  was  held  on  July  twenty-first,  1865,  on  a  lawn  near 
the  college  grounds,  and  many  prominent  men  were  present. 
Lowell's  recitation  of  his  great   Ode   was  most  affecting. 
Underwood,  in  his  James  Russell  Lowell,  page  68,  describes 
the  scene. 

II.  The  Ode  was  written  with  the  greatest  speed.     Two 
days  before  the  services,  Lowell  had  not  begun  it.    On  the  day 
before,  he  says,  "Something  gave  me  a  jog,  and  the  whole 
thing  came  out  of  me  with  a  rush.    I  sat  up  all  night  writing 
it  out  clear,  and  took  it  on  the  morning  of  the  day  to  Child. 
'  I  have  something,  but  don't  know  yet  what  it  is  or  whether 
it  will  do.    Look  at  it  and  tell  me.'    He  went  a  little  way  apart 
under  an  elm-tree  in  the  college  yard.     He  read  a  passage 
here  and  there,  brought  it  back  to  me,  and  said,  'Do?     I 
should  think  so!    Don't  you  be  scared.'    And  I  wasn't,  but 
virtue  enough  had  gone  out  of  me  to  make  me  weak  for  a 
fortnight  after."     (Letters  of  Lowell.)     See  index  to  Letters, 
edited  by  Norton,  and  index  to  Scudder's  Life  of  Lowell;  also 
Greenslet's  Lowell,  pages  161-163. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  241 

A  poem  so  hurriedly  written  necessarily  lacks  the  rhetorical 
polish  of  one  which  the  author  has  revised  again  and  again. 
The  Ode  is  extremely  condensed  in  expression,  and  is  full  of 
involved  and  difficult  sentences  and  of  figures  of  speech  so 
closely  following  each  other  that  they  hardly  escape  being 
" mixed."  Moreover,  transition  and  coherence  between  stan 
zas  is  not  always  clear.  But  the  sentiment  is  exalted,  and 
the  imagery  is  noble.  The  poem  is  well  worth  all  the  study 
required  to  master  its  difficulties. 

III.  The  motto  of  Harvard  College  suggested  the  general 
theme  of  the  poem  —  Veritas.  The  thesis  is  this :  The  sol 
diers  who  went  from  Harvard  into  the  war  were  following 
the  teachings  of  Alma  Mater  in  fighting  for  Truth ;  and  their 
lives  are  not  wasted,  because  their  influence  will  be  an  eter 
nal  blessing  to  the  race. 

In  the  preliminary  reading  of  the  poem,  use  the  following 
outline  as  an  aid: 

Stanzas  1-3.  The  soldiers  worshipped  Truth  with  deeds; 
that  is,  they  actually  did  something  for  the  advancement  of 
the  race.  We  offer  only  words. 

Stanza  4.  Is  there  nothing  we  can  do  to  make  our  lives 
helpful  to  those  that  come  after  us? 

Stanza  5.  The  man  who  follows  Truth  will  have  battles  to 
fight. 

Stanza  6.  Lincoln  was  the  best  exponent  of  the  spirit  of 
American  democracy. 

Stanza  7.  Service  by  action  is  higher  than  service  by 
thought  and  word  merely. 

Stanza  8.  While  I  try  to  praise  the  living,  I  mourn  for 
the  dead.  Yet  they  are  not  dead;  their  noble  example  still 
lives  and  inspires  us. 

Stanza  9.  The  fame  of  the  individual  man  passes  away, 


242         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

but  the  spiritual  bequest  of  the  hero  remains  to  the 
race. 

Stanza  10.  Our  soldiers  have  proved  our  democratic  na 
tion  a  country  of  noble  men. 

Stanza  11.  A  song  of  praise  for  the  soldiers,  who  have 
saved  the  nation,  and  of  gladness  for  our  nationality  pre 
served. 

Stanza  12.  An  apostrophe  to  our  country,  expressing  the 
poet's  ardent  patriotism. 

IV.  Study  the  poem  with  the  following  notes,  questions, 
and  paraphrases. 

Lines  1-3:  Explain  the  metaphor  comparing  poetry  to  a 
bird  of  weak  wing,  and  action  to  a  bird  of  powerful  pinions. 
Line  5:  Is  the  poet's  offering  worthy?  The  robin  is  not  a 
bird  of  high  flight.  Line  6:  The  antecedent  of  "who"  is 
"their."  Explain  "nobler  verse."  Line  7:  "Song"  is  ap- 
positive  to  "robin's  leaf"  (line  5).  Line  8:  The  soldiers  and 
generals  present.  Line  9:  A  "strophe"  is  a  stanza  of  an  ode. 
A  "squadron"  is  a  platoon  of  soldiers;  the  figure  of  line  6  is 
continued.  Line  10:  "Battle-odes"  is  appositive  to  "squad 
ron-strophes."  Notice  the  double  sense  of  "lines."  Line  11 : 
"Feathered"  goes  back  to  the  figure  in  lines  1-3.  Line  12: 
To  buoy  up  and  save  a  gracious  memory.  Line  13:  Find 
"Lethe"  in  your  mythology.  "Grave"  is  appositive  to 
"ooze."  In  a  poem  in  honor  of  soldiers,  the  life  of  action 
will,  of  course,  be  exalted  above  the  life  of  thought. 

Line  15:  The  "Reverend  Mother"  is  the  Alma  Mater, 
Harvard.  Line  16:  "Wisest"  is  explained  in  the  next  lines. 
A  student  looks  for  intellectual  truth;  but  there  is  a  higher 
kind  of  truth.  Line  17:  For  "mystic  tome"  see  the  seal  of 
Harvard  College,  on  which  the  word  "Veritas"  appears. 
Line  19 :  Until  recent  years  Greek  and  Latin  were  the  chief 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  243 

studies  in  the  college  course.  Line  20:  Reference  to  the 
elaborate  nomenclature  of  science.  Line  21 :  Astronomy  took 
the  place  of  the  old  astrology.  Line  22:  Mere  intellectual 
knowledge  is  like  poetry,  " weak-winged"  (lines  1-3).  With 
line  23  compare  line  13.  Line  24:  "Date,"  or  limit,  of  our 
existence.  Line  25:  With  "clear  fame"  compare  Milton's 
Lyddasj  line  70.  Line  27:  Harvard  never  taught  that  the 
mere  intellectual  conception  of  truth  was  the  end  of  college 
training.  Line  28:  "Trumpet-call"  is  "teaching,"  in  meta 
phor,  appropriate  here  because  duty  had  called  these  sons  of 
Harvard  to  battle.  Line  32:  "Half-virtues"  because  they 
do  not  require  the  strenuous  courage  of  the  war-like  virtues. 
Line  34:  But  [thy "teaching  was]  rather.  Line  35:  "Spon 
sors"  were  the  men  who  founded  Harvard  in  1636.  Line  37: 
The  essence  of  Truth,  the  germ  or  grain,  of  which  the  name 
is  only  the  useless  hull.  Line  40:  "Seed-grain"  continues 
the  metaphor  in  "sheath"  (line  38).  "Life,"  "seed-grain," 
"food,"  and  "thing"  are  appositive  to  "Veritas." 

Lines  42-45:  The  scholar  seeks  Truth  thus.  The  "cast 
mantle"  of  words  expressing  a  truth  already  established,  no 
longer  progressive.  See  II  Kings  2:14.  Line  51:  He  only 
who  acts  Truth  knows  it  thoroughly.  Line  58:  See  line  45. 
Lines  60-62:  See  line  45.  The  "lifeless  creed"  is  the  "cast 
mantle."  Line  63:  Truth,  pictured  in  the  garb  of  Athene. 

Lines  66,  67:  Life  spoken  of  under  the  metaphor  of  a 
stream.  Line  69:  For  means  "because  of."  Line  71:  Some 
immortal  work  to  do  for  society.  Line  73 :  Explain  the  meta 
phor.  Line  74:  See  means  "know."  Line  78:  Notice  the 
figure  in  "hiving."  Line  82:  See  Sir  Launfal,  Prelude  I. 
Lines  83-87:  The  metaphor  is  taken  from  a  puppet-show, 
where  the  figures  are  moved  about  by  wires;  for  a  little 
while  the  pasteboard  figures  act  extravagantly;  then  the 


244         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

manager  tosses  them  into  a  box,  to  await  the  next  exhibition. 
Lines  74-87  are  the  cynic's  answer  to  the  questions  asked  in 
lines  68-73.  Now  Lowell  stops  the  cynic  with  "But  stay!" 
and  begins  his  own  answer  to  the  questions.  Line  90 :  We  get 
the  fate  we  deserve.  Line  91:  The  subjects  of  "is"  are 
"something"  (line  91),  "something"  (line  93),  "something" 
(line  95),  "seed"  (line  97),  "conscience"  (line  101),  "glad 
ness"  (line  102),  "sense"  (line  103),  "light"  (line  105).  Line 
92:  "The  cynic's  sneer"  in  lines  74-87.  Lines  93,  94  answer 
lines  70,  71.  Line  97:  Explain  the  metaphor.  Line  107: 
"  Beaconing  "  to  a  glorious  future  for  each  one  of  us.  Express 
in  your  own  words  Lowell's  answer  to  the  questions  in  lines 
68-73. 

Lines  108,  109:  The  "ampler  fates"  are  those  referred  to 
in  line  107.  Lines  110-112:  Explain  the  metaphor.  "Youth's 
vain-glorious  weeds"  are  boasting  words  and  promises.  Line 
113:  "But  [this  path  leads]  up."  The  world  makes  progress 
by  means  of  battle,  not  by  means  of  words.  Creeds  are 
"beliefs."  The  battle-figure  for  life  continues  to  line  121. 
Line  118:  A  man  may  serve  society  worthily  in  time  of  peace. 
Line  122:  Some  day  the  smouldering  passion  behind  the  dis 
cussion  will,  by  the  initiative  of  one  side  or  the  other,  the  right 
or  the  wrong,  burst  into  actual  combat.  For  the  allusion  in 
lines  123-125,  see  I  Kings  18:20-40;  Jeremiah  19:5.  Line 
126:  "The  war  of  tongue  and  pen"  is  the  "thought"  in  line 
122;  discussion  of  a  question.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  debates 
are  a  good  example  in  this  connection.  Line  129:  "Pillared^ 
state"  is  the  subject  of  "shakes,"  and  "helpless"  (line  128)" 
modifies  "state."  Is  this  the  history  of  social  reform  —  first 
discussion  and  debate,  and  then,  when  passion  has  risen  high 
on  both  sides,  battle  and  conflict?  Review  the  history  of  the 
agitation  against  slavery  in  our  country.  Line  130 :  We  wooed 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  245 

with  words  a  pleasant  social  ideal.  Line  131:  The  battle- 
stage  being  reached.  Line  132:  The  "praise,"  or  reputation, 
of  being  a  reformer.  Line  134:  See  line  112.  Line  135: 
Words  that  mean  nothing.  Line  136:  Genius  for  speech,  for 
which  your  deeds  are  not  mates.  Line  139 :  As  bravely  in  the 
study  as  on  the  battle-field.  How?  Line  140:  Fate  kindly 
provides  more  than  one  way  of  giving  life  for  Truth.  But 
after  all  (lines  141-149),  to  fight  in  physical  battle  for  Truth 
is  heroic  after  the  fashion  of  the  heroes  of  olden  time  — 
strong,  natural,  assured,  self-sufficient  men. 

Line  150:  This  stanza  "was  not  in  the  Ode  as  originally 
recited,  but  added  immediately  after."  "Such"  refers  to 
"God's  plan  and  measure  of  a  stalwart  man"  as  described 
in  lines  140-149.  Lincoln  was  assassinated  about  three 
months  before  the  Ode  was  written.  About  a  year  and  a  half 
before,  Lowell  had  written  an  article  for  The  North  American 
Review  (January,  1864,  "The  President's  Policy"),  in  which 
he  had  praised  Lincoln  in  a  manner  similar  to  this.  See 
Lowell's  letter  of  January  16, 1886,  to  R.  W.  Gilder.  Many  of 
the  cultivated  people  of  the  nation  could,  at  that  time,  see  in 
him  only  a  crude  Westerner.  Line  152:  "Ashes"  among 
Eastern  nations  are  worn  as  a  sign  of  mourning.  Line  154: 
"Present  things,"  i.  e.  praise  of  Harvard  men.  Line  156: 
What  old  burial  custom  is  referred  to?  This  reference  consti 
tutes  what  figure  of  speech?  Line  157 :  Is  in  her  dotage — can 
not  do  anything  new  and  original.  Line  161 :  In  Lincoln  she 
created  a  man  after  a  new  pattern,  of  new  material.  Line  165 : 
Had  Lincoln  the  three  qualities  mentioned  here?  Line  167 :  A 
shepherd  leads  his  flock  ("charge").  Line  170:  See  line  148. 
Lincoln  was  of  most  humble  parentage.  Line  173:  "They" 
are  "the  people"  (line  169).  He  was  lacking  in  outward 
graces.  Line  175:  What  figure  in  "sure-footed"?  Lines  176, 


246         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

177:  A  well-tempered  Damascus  blade  can  be  bent  into  a  cir 
cle,  and  will  spring  out  straight  again  for  the  fencer's  thrust. 
This  is  a  good  metaphor  for  a  nature  adaptable  yet  persistent 
and  consistent.  Lines  178-183:  Explain  the  metaphor. 
" Sea-mark,"  i.  e.  can  be  seen  by  vessels  a  long  distance  out; 
but  if  it  is  often  hidden  by  vapors,  it  is  an  unreliable  aid.  Are 
the  greatest  minds  always  as  practically  useful  to  common 
men?  Think  of  the  world's  great  philosophers.  Line  184:  See 
line  170.  Line  185:  Or,  if  he  has  Old  World  characteristics, 
they  are  those  of  Europe  when  she  was  more  primitive,  and 
free,  before  she  had  such  artificial  class  distinctions  as  now. 
"  Equal  scheme,"  i.  e.  scheme  for  equality.  Line  189:  True 
race  of  primitive  men,  in  whom,  at  least  according  to  Words 
worth,  it  is  easy  to  trace  the  fundamental  virtues.  Plutarch 
wrote  the  lives  of  a  great  number  of  classic  heroes.  Lines 
192-195:  A  strong  man  does  not  care  for  present  popularity. 
He  knows  that  the  future  will  justify  him.  Line  196:  So 
Lincoln  did.  Line  200:  Time  will  show  whether  he  was  a 
wise  president  or  not.  Lines  201-203:  Certain  men  have 
great  temporary  fame.  Line  204:  "Standing"  goes  with 
"fame"  (line  205).  Lines  206-208:  Is  this  characterization 
of  Lincoln  correct?  With  line  208  compare  line  162.  "  First " 
means  "foremost:"  the  American  who  best  embodies  Ameri 
can  principles  and  ideals. 

Line  209:  The  stanza  begins  with  two  rather  long  time 
clauses:  "As  long  as"  (line  209)  and  "as  long  as"  (line  214) 
are  their  connectives;  the  correlative  beginning  the  main 
clause  is  "so  long"  (line  216).  Lines  209-211  go  back  to  the 
question  in  line  70.  Lines  211,  212:  The  figure  is  that  of 
chariot-wheels  turning  about  the  immovable  pole  on  which 
they  are  placed.  Perhaps  the  pole  represents  the  line  of  social 
progress,  on  which  the  great  men  of  earth  do  their  work.  Line 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  247 

215:  See  line  72.  Lines  216ff. :  The  sentence  is  very  compli 
cated.  "  Faith"  (line  216)  and  "  mood  "  (line  218)  are  the  sub 
jects;  "shall  win"  (line  223)  and  "shall  be"  (line  224)  are  the 
verbs;  "wisdom"  (line  224)  and  "virtue"  (line  226)  are  com 
plements  of  "shall  be"  (line  224).  "Names"  (line  217)  has 
three  appositives  in  line  218.  The  adjective  clause  "that 
thanks  (line  219)  and  has"  (line  222)  modifies  "mood"  (line 
218).  The  participles  "feeling"  (line  220)  and  "set"  (line 
222)  go  with  the  relative-  "that"  (line  219).  Ethereal 
(line  218)  means  "exalted."  Line  223:  All  other  skills  and 
gifts  dear  to  culture.  See  lines  19-21.  The  sentence  asserts 
that  courageous  service  of  society  in  time  of  danger  is  the 
work  we  praise  most  highly  and  longest.  Lines  229-231: 
That  is  why  we  hold  this  service  for  the  Harvard  soldiers. 
Line  232:  The  Promised  Land  is  described  in  Numbers  13 
and  14  —  "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey,"  to  the  occu 
pation  of  which  the  Israelites  had  long  looked  forward,  as  the 
Abolitionists  had  looked  forward  to  complete  liberty  in  Amer 
ica.  Line  234:  "They,"  i.  e.,  the  soldiers.  Line  235:  Explain 
the  metaphor  in  "nettle."  Lines  240-244:  In  the  conven 
tional  manner,  Lowell  speaks  of  poetry  in  the  terms  of  song 
accompanied  on  the  lyre.  You  will  understand  the  spirit  of 
these  lines  when  you  know  that  Lowell  lost  three  nephews  in 
the  Civil  War,  and  that,  since  his  only  son  had  died  in  infancy, 
he  felt  for  his  nephews  something  of  a  father's  interest  and 
affection.  Line  252:  Lowell  checks  himself  in  the  expression 
of  his  grief;  for  the  main  thing  in  life  is  not  reaping  the  reward 
of  labor  but  doing  the  work  in  the  proper  spirit.  For  "  grapes 
of  Canaan  "  refer  to  the  Promised  Land  (line  232) .  Line  260 : 
Saints  wear  aureoles.  Line  265:  Orient  means  "light;"  re 
ferring  to  the  direction  in  which  the  sun  rises.  Line  271; 
"Morn"  refers  to  "orient"  (line  165).  Their  shields  of  Hope 


248         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

for  the  future  of  the  race  to  which  they  have  given  their 
lives. 

Line  272 :  But  can  we  hope  to  keep  forever  this  exalted  in 
spiration  that  they  now  impart  to  us?  Shall  we  not  forget 
in  time  their  example?  Are  not  all  men  forgotten,  save  a  few? 
All  books,  save  a  few  of  the  best?  —  Are  lines  274-286  a  cor 
rect  estimate  of  the  past?  Notice  the  metaphor  in  lines  282, 
283.  Notice  the  epigram  in  line  285.  Line  286:  Even  the 
things  that  seem  most  stable  are  not.  Line  289 :  Men  try  to 
make  themselves  immortal  names  by  building  tombs;  clever 
men  are  famous  as  long  as  they  live.  Line  291 :  But  we  are 
" leaves,"  not  fruit,  and  produce  nothing.  Line  292:  Will 
not  these  soldier-boys  be  forgotten  when  we,  their  personal 
friends,  have  passed  away?  Line  298:  Their  "dying"  would 
not  be  without  results  (contrast  line  291).  But  the  Soul  re 
sents  the  inference  that  a  man's  influence  lives  only  through 
the  generation  that  he  belongs  to;  society  could  not  progress 
if  this  were  true  (line  300).  Line  301:  The  Soul  claims  that 
a  man's  spiritual  influence  lasts  longer  than  his  personal  fame. 
Explain  the  figure.  Lines  303-309 :  Her  influence  has  been  too 
deep  and  too  far-reaching  to  cease;  it  passes  on  from  soul  to 
soul  in  never-ending  line.  Line.310:  The  influence  of  manly 
qualities  lasts  longer  than  the  man  himself.  Lines  312-315: 
The  names  and  personal  deeds  will  be  forgotten  soon.  Ex 
plain  the  metaphor  in  line  315.  Lines  316-328:  But  their 
qualities  and  the  principles  on  which  they  based  their  lives 
have  become  the  permanent  possession  of  the  race.  Line  316 : 
" Privilege"  of  character.  Peers  means  "equals."  "Privi 
lege"  (line  316),  "leap"  (line  317),  "validity"  (line  320),  are 
all  united  in  "these"  (line  325)  as  the  subject  of  "are."  Line 
328:  The  race  is  regenerated  and  ennobled  by  principles  and 
qualities  such  men  bequeath  to  it. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  249 

Line  329:  Lowell  was  much  incensed  by  the  statement  of 
an  English  paper  that  the  Northern  army  was  "officered  by 
tailor's  apprentices  and  butcher-boys."  The  tenth  strophe 
is  directed  against  this  remark,  prompted  by  class  prejudice. 
Line  332 :  The  Roundheads  were  the  Puritans,  many  of  them 
men  of  lower  class,  in  the  English  Revolution  against  Charles 
I.  The  Cavaliers  were  the  courtiers.  What  does  any  one  care 
now  for  these  class  distinctions?  Lines  336,  337:  Explain 
the  figure.  Lines  339,  340:  Lowell  names  three  families  that 
ruled  in  Europe  for  a  long  time,  and  became  somewhat  en 
feebled  before  the  end  of  their  dynasties.  Line  343:  The 
"civic  wreath"  was  given  to  the  common  soldier  in  the 
Roman  army  for  a  certain  service.  Line  345:  "Desert"  is 
the  noun.  "Whose"  has  "brave"  (line  344)  for  its  ante 
cedent.  Line  346:  And  hears  the  trumpet  shout  victory. 
Line  347  refers  to  the  article  in  the  English  paper,  men 
tioned  above,  and  the  attitude  of  England  during  our  Civil 
War. 

Line  349:  The  last  strophe  has  exhibited  some  anger 
against  England,  and  some  pride  in  our  democracy.  Line 
355  contains  the  main  clause  of  this  periodic  sentence. 
"Allied"  (line  351)  modifies  "mixture"  (line  350).  "Re 
newed"  (line  353)  modifies  "gratitude"  (line  352),  as  also 
does  line  354.  Notice  the  marching  movement  of  the  first 
twenty-three  lines  of .  this  stanza.  "Martial"  (line  358), 
"prouder  tread"  (line  359),  "march"  (line  363)  correspond 
with  this  movement.  Lines  365-367:  Napoleon  would, 
perhaps,  be  an  example  of  such  a  man.  The  Commemoration 
service  was  not  held  for  such  a  person,  but  for  the  very 
"manhood"  of  the  whole  nation.  The  nation  receives  from 
her  children,  and  gives  back  to  them  all  they  have  offered 
her.  Line  375:  See  Luke  8:44.  The  less  courageous  are 


250         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

healed  of  their  infirmity  by  their  love  of  country.  Line  376 : 
See  line  349.  We  have  a  right  to  patriotic  pride.  Lines 
381ff. :  Signs  of  rejoicing  that  the  result  of  the  war  has  been 
re-union  and  not  dis-union.  Line  383:  Let  the  flags  dip 
and  signal.  Line  385:  A  line  of  joyful  signal  fires  to  be  kin 
dled  across  the  country,  from  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and 
New  York  to  the  Pacific.  Line  392:  See  strophe  X,  and  our 
democratic  principles.  Line  393 :  She  has  a  welcome  for  the 
poor  of  all  nations.  Line  395 :  As  it  was  during  the  war  — 
the  fire  of  battle.  Line  396:  Front  means  "  forehead." 
Line  397:  Sends  the  soldiers  home  to  their  ordinary  work. 
Line  401 :  ,866  the  explanation  for  the  indignation  of  Lowell 
shown  in  strophe  X.  How  were  our  differences  with  England 
settled  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War?  Line '404:  The  "chil 
dren"  are  the  states,  some  of  which  had  tried  to  wander  away. 
Line  406:  See  line  410.  " Release"  from  the  sufferings  of 
war;  see  also  " these  distempered  days."  Line  409:  Ac 
complished  the  abolition  of  slavery,  which  had  caused  so 
much  dissension  for  many  years.  Lines  411,  412:  The  lib 
erated  slaves.  Line  413:  Emphasize  "ours."  The  nation 
is,  as  in  the  eleventh  strophe,  personified  as  a  woman. 
Line  416:  "Set"  lips  show  little  or  no  red  color  (see 
"pale  eclipse").  As  they  are  relaxed,  the  "rosy"  color 
appears.  Line  421  describes  our  country.  Line  424:  Reck 
means  "care." 

V.  Find  out  from  the  Rhetorical  Introduction  what  an 
ode  is,  and  make  a  statement  about  its  meter,  rime,  and 
stanza-structure.    Study  the  last  strophe  of  this  Ode  for  its 
poetic  form.    Study  the  sixth. 

VI.  Read  Underwood's  account  of  the  delivery  of  the 
poem.    Imagine  the  deep  feeling  of  all  the  auditors,  many  of 
whom  were  soldiers,  and  all  of  whom  had  lost  dear  friends  in 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  251 

the  war.  These  wounds  were  fresh  and  bleeding.  Think  of 
Lowell's  own  bereavement  in  the  death  of  his  three  nephews. 
Then  read  the  poem  aloud,  as  you  think  it  was  read  on 
the  twenty-first  of  July,  1865. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life  and  Letters,  2  Vol.,  by  John  T.  Morse,  Jr.;  Boston,  1896. 

Life,  by  E.  E.  Brown;  Boston,  1894. 

Life,  by  Walter  Jerrold;  New  York,  1893. 

An  Appreciation,  by  Wm.  L.  Schroeder;  London,  1909. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Old  Ironsides,  The  Height  of  the  Ridiculous,  The  Last  Leaf,  To 
an  Insect,  The  Ballad  of  the  Oysterman,  The  Deacon's  Masterpiece, 
Parson  Turell's  Legacy,  Dorothy  Q,  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker 
Hill,  Memorial  Verses  for  Harvard  Commemoration  Services,  The  Iron 
Gate. 

The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table. 

See  Appendix  I,  titles  76  to  78  inclusive. 

THE  CHAMBERED  NAUTILUS 

I.  The  Autocrat  discoursed  thus  one  morning  at  the 
Breakfast-Table : 

Did  I  not  say  to  you  a  little  while  ago  that  the  universe  swam  in  an 
ocean  of  similitudes  and  analogies?  I  will  not  quote  Cowley.  or  Burns,  or 
Wordsworth,  just  now,  to  show  you  what  thoughts  were  suggested  to 
them  by  the  simplest  natural  objects,  such  as  a  flower  or  a  leaf;  but  I  will 
read  you  a  few  lines,  if  you  do  not  object,  suggested  by  looking  at  a 
section  of  one  of  those  chambered  shells  to  which  is  given  the  name  of 
Pearly  Nautilus.  We  need  not  trouble  ourselves  about  the  distinction 
between  this  and  the  Paper  Nautilus,  the  Argonauta  of  the  ancients. 
The  name  applied  to  both  shows  that  each  has  been  compared  to  a  ship, 

252 


OLIVER   WENDELL  HOLMES 


253 


as  you  may  see  more  fully  in  Webster's  Dictionary  or  the  Encyclopedia, 
to  which  he  refers.  If  you' will  look  into  Roget's  Bridgewater  Treatise, 
you  will  find  a  figure  of  one  of  those  shells,  and  a  section  of  it.  The  last 
will  show  you  the  series  of  enlarging  compartments  successively  dwelt  in 
by  the  animal  that  inhabits  the  shell,  which  is  built  in  a  widening  spiral. 
Can  you  find  no  lesson  in  this? 

And  then  the  Autocrat  read  them  the  poem  of  five  stanzas 
which  he  had  composed  to  show  one  of  the  "similitudes  and 


The  Nautilus 


Internal  structure  of  the  shell 


'the 


analogies"  that  helps  to  make  up  the  ocean  in  which 
universe  swims." 

Read  the  poem  and  study  the  drawings. 

II.  Since  Holmes  has  told  us  so  clearly  that  he  wishes  to 
show  us  how  a  spiritual  thought  may  be  expressed  in  a 
metaphor  relating  to  the  physical  world,  we  should  first 
study  his  figures,  and  develop  through  them  his  meaning. 
We  will  use  the  following  outline : 

Stanza  topics  Metaphors 

1.  The  living  nautilus.         x  shell  =ship. 

2.  The  broken,  abandoned  shell. 

3.  The  building  of  the  shell.  shell  =dwelling. 

4.  Thanks  for  the  message. 

5.  The  message,  or  moral.  See  3. 


254         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

You  notice  that  the  first  three  stanzas  describe  the  mate 
rial  object,  the  last  one  states  its  analogy  in  the  spiritual 
world. 

Stanza  1.  The  first  metaphor  governs  the  diction  of  the 
first  stanza  and  two  lines  of  the  second.  There  was  an  old 
belief  that  this  little  creature  could  put  out  a  membrane  for  a 
sail,  and  ride  over  the  seas  like  a  ship.  So  "  poets  have 
feigned."  Choose  all  the  words  brought  into  these  nine 
lines  because  of  this  metaphor.  "  Pearl "  refers  to  the  beauti 
ful,  many-colored  effect  of  the  inner  shell;  see  "irised"  in 
line  14;  find  out  from  your  mythology  who  Iris  was,  and 
why  irised  should  mean  "many-colored."  Explain  un 
shadowed  as  "unvisited,"  or  "lonely;"  why?  Why  "ven 
turous"?  On  the  metaphor  which  forms  the  base  of  the 
stanza  is  superimposed  another:  the  sails  are  called  "wings." 
This  comparison  has  always  been  a  common  one;  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  ancestors  used  the  simile,  "a  ship  likest  a  bird."  The 
description  of  the  lovely,  mysterious,  legend-haunted  tropic 
seas  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  poem. 

Stanza  2.  The  ship  metaphor  extends  through  the  first 
two  lines  of  stanza  2,  in  description  of  the  broken,  deserted 
shell.  The  remainder  of  the  second  stanza  and  the  whole  of 
the  third  is  governed  by  the  house  metaphor;  list  all  the  words 
that  are  used  in  this  figure.  The  "dim,  dreaming"  life  refers 
to  the  low  order  of  nervous  development  in  this  creature. 
The  shell  must  be  broken  in  order  to  reveal  the  internal 
structure. 

Stanza  3.  Make  a  particularly  careful  study  of  the  third 
stanza.  Understand  thoroughly  before  you  go  on  the  habit 
of  the  nautilus  and  the  metaphor  comparing  the  enlarging  of 
the  shell  to  the  enlarging  of  a  building. 

Stanza  4.  The  fourth  stanza  opens  with  an  apostrophe. 


OLIVER   WENDELL  HOLMES  255 

What  are  the  shell  and  the  sea  compared  to  in  the  second 
and  third  lines?  "Dead"  refers  to  the  condition  described 
in  stanza  2.  The  "note"  is  the  "message."  For  "Triton" 
see  your  mythology.  Triton's  trumpet  was  a  spiral  — 
"wreathed"  —  shell.  Other  poets  have  applied  the  same 
epithet  to  this  trumpet:  "And  hear  old  Triton  blow  his 
wreathed  horn."  (Wordsworth.)  "  Caves "  is  a  figure  drawn 
from  the  rocky  coast,  whither  the  reference  to  Triton  has 
carried  us. 

Stanza  5.  This  is  the  message  of  the  broken  shell  to  the 
poet's  soul.  Its  metaphor  brings  in  the  words  "build," 
"mansions,"  "low-vaulted,"  "temple,"  "dome."  The 
thought  of  these  lines  is  a  thought  of  building,  and  this, 
with  its  metaphor,  carries  us  back  to  stanza  3,  where  the 
nautilus  is  spoken  of  as  a  builder,  preparing  for  himself  each 
year  a  larger  dwelling.  The  sight  of  this  preparation  for 
growth  and  larger  development  admonishes  the  poet  to  give 
his  soul  room  for  constant  growth;  to  make  his  ideals  more 
•spacious  year  by  year;  to  push  away  the  limitations  that 
shut  him  down  to  earth  —  such  limitations  as  ignorance  and 
sin.  As  long  as  he  lives  in  this  world  he  will  be  subject  to 
some  limitation  —  he  cannot  fully  develop  here  either 
mentally  or  spiritually;  but  he  should  make  the  limitations  as 
few  and  as  little  confining  as  possible  (line  5);  and  he  can 
look  forward  to  the  time  (lines  6  and  7)  when  these  limitations 
shall  be  put  off,  with  the  life  to  which  they  belong.  The  last 
line  returns  in  its  metaphor  to  the  material  subject  of  the 
poem  —  the  shell  of  the  nautilus,  broken  and  abandoned, 
represents  the  limitations  that  belong  to  this  life,  outgrown 
and  left  behind. 

Think  over  once  more  the  teaching  of  the  poem.    Relate 
the  last  stanza  again  to  the  third.     Then  read  again  the 


256         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

paragraph  with  which  the  Autocrat  introduced  his  poem  to 
the  family  at  the  Breakfast-Table.  Do  you  understand  now 
what  he  meant? 

III.  Study  line  and  stanza-structure.    Describe  the  rime- 
plan.    Go  through  the  poem  for  alliteration  and  other  devices 
for  producing  melody.    Where  do  you  find  the  best  music? 
Make  a  list  of  the  most  effective  epithets  used  in  the  poem. 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Try  to  express  with  your  voice 
all  you  know  and  feel  about  it. 

THE  VOICELESS 

I.  The  Voiceless  is  another  of  the  poems  printed  in  The 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table.  The  paragraph  that  intro 
duces  it  reads  as  follows:  "Read  what  the  singing  women- — 
one  to  ten  thousand  of  the  suffering  women  —  tell  us,  and 
think  of  the  griefs  that  die  unspoken!  Nature  is  in  earnest 
when  she  makes  a  woman;  and  there  are  women  enough 
lying  in  the  next  church-yard  with  very  common-place  blue 
slate-stones  at  their  head  and  feet,  for  whom  it  was  just  as- 
true  that  'all  sounds  of  life  assumed  one  tone  of  love/  as  for 
Letitia  Landon,  of  whom  Elizabeth  Browning  said  it;  but  she 
could  give  words  to  her  grief,  and  they  cannot.  —  Will  you 
hear  a  few  stanzas  of  mine?" 

Letitia  Elizabeth  Landon,  better  known  as  L.  E.  L.,  was  an 
English  poetess  and  novelist  (1802-1838).  Her  writings  are  full 
of  "gentle  melancholy  and  romantic  sentiment."  She  is  a  minor 
writer,  but  was  admired  by  the  much  greater  Mrs.  Browning. 

This  poem  is  an  expression  of  sympathy  for  those  who, 
feeling  intensely,  have  no  power  to  express  what  they  feel. 
The  writer  thinks  there  is  material  for  poetry  in  every  heart, 
though  many  are  dumb.  The  custom  of  speaking  of  a  poet  as 


OLIVER   WENDELL  HOLMES  257 

a  singer  dates  back  to  ancient  times,  when,  since  books  were 
exceedingly  rare,  the  poet  chanted  his  production  before  an 
audience  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre  or  the  harp.  The 
opposite  of  the  singer,  or  poet,  would  be  "the  voiceless,"  the 
" silent  sister,"  etc. 

The  first  two  stanzas  compare  the  singer  and  the  voiceless 
in  alternating  groups  of  two  lines.  The  third  stanza  is  de 
voted  entirely  to  those  for  whose  sake  the  poem  was  written. 

II.  Study  the  poem  in  detail.    The  more  difficult  lines  are 
paraphrased  or  explained  below. 

Line  1 :  Flowers,  carefully  arranged  in  the  symbolic  shape 
of  a  broken  lyre,  decorate  the  graves  of  famous  poets;  we 
linger  over  them  and  count  these  tokens  of  regard.  But  the 
neglected  grave  of  "the  voiceless"  is  covered  only  by  wild- 
flowers,  to  which  no  person  gives  any  attention. 

Line  12:  The  "cross"  stands  for  suffering;  the  "crown" 
for  the  reward  of  fame  and  appreciation.  Name  the  figure. 

Lines  13,  14:  The  Greek  poetess  Sappho  (about  600  B.  C.) 
is  said  to  have  thrown  herself  from  the  promontory  of  Leuca- 
dia  into  the  sea  for  love  of  Phaon,  who  had  rejected  her. 

Lines  19,  20:  Explain  the  figure. 

III.  Study  the  line  and  stanza  construction  of  the  poem. 
Go  through  it  also  for  devices  used  to  produce  melody  and 
harmony. 

IV.  Read  the  poem  aloud. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Hawthorne  and  His  Wife,  2  Vol.,  by  Julian  Hawthorne;  Boston,  1895. 

Hawthorne  and  His  Circle,  by  Julian  Hawthorne;  New  York,  1903. 

Memories  of  Hawthorne,  by  Rose  Hawthorne  Lathrop ;  Boston,  1897. 

A  Study  of  Hawthorne,  by  G.  P.  Lathrop;  Boston,  1893. 

Life,  by  Henry  James,  Jr.;  New  York,  1897. 

Hawthorne  and  His  Friends,  by  F.  B.  Sanborn;  1908. 

Life  and  Genius,  by  Frank  P.  Stearns;  Philadelphia,  1906. 

Memoir,  by  "H.  A.  Page;"  London,  1872. 

Personal  Recollections,  by  Horatio  Bridge;  New  York,  1893. 

Life,  by  M.  D.  Conway;  New  York,  1890. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Grandfather's  Chair,  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse  (I  and  II),  Twice- 
Told  Tales  (I  and  II),  The  Snow  Image  and  Other  Tales. 
See  Appendix  I,  titles  47  to  55  inclusive. 

THE  GREAT  STONE  FACE 

I.  Read  the  story  through  with  the  following  outline  and 
notes.    Study  with  it  the  picture  of  the  Face. 
1.  Introduction. 

a.  The  boy. 

b.  The  Valley  and  its  inhabitants. 

c.  The  Face :  which  is  emphasized  in  the  description,  the 

features  or  the  expression?     What  does  the  boy's 
feeling  for  it  tell  you  about  it? 
258 


NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE  259 

d.  The  prophecy  of  the  Great  Man;  impression  on  the 
boy. 

2.  The  first  "Great  Man"   -  Gathergold. 

a.  Ernest  a  boy. 

b.  His  character,  under  the  influence  of  the  Face. 

c.  Gathergold's    career,    appearance,    and    character. 

What  does  the  long  description  of  his  home  tell 
about  him? 

d.  Attitude  of  the  people  toward  him. 

e.  Feeling  of  Ernest  toward  him. 

f .  The  Face  renews  the  prophecy. 

3.  The  second  " Great  Man"  —  Blood-and-Thunder. 

a.  Ernest  a  young  man. 

b.  The  character  of  Ernest. 

c.  The  character  of  the  second  "  Great  Man." 

d.  The  attitude  of  the  people  toward  the  General. 

e.  Ernest's  feeling  for  him. 

f.  The  Face  speaks  to  Ernest. 

4.  The  third  "Great  Man"  —  Old  Stony  Phiz. 

a.  Ernest  a  man  of  middle  age. 

b.  The  development  of  his  character. 

c.  The  character  of  Old  Stony  Phiz. 

d.  The  feeling  of  the  people  for  the  statesman. 

e.  The  feeling  of  Ernest  for  him. 

f .  The  Face  speaks  again  to  Ernest. 

5.  The  fourth  "Great  Man"  —  the  Poet. 

a.  Ernest  an  old  man. 

b.  His  character. 

c.  The  coming  of  the  Poet. 

d.  The  people  do  not  recognize  the  Poet's  work.    Why 

not? 

e.  Ernest  has  expected  the  Poet  to  resemble  the  Face. 


260         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Why?    Why  is  this  the  most  bitter  disappointment 
of  all?     How  does  the  poet  himself  explain  his 
failure? 
6.  The  true  " Great  Man"  discovered. 

a.  The  discourse  of  Ernest;  the  source  of  his  power. 

b.  The  Poet  discovers  the  "Great  Man."    Why  should 
the  Poet  be  the  one  to  make  the  discovery? 

c.  The  humility  of  Ernest. 

II.  For  the  kernel  of  the  story,  see  American  Note-Books, 
1839.    Hawthorne  usually  has  a  moral  thought  in  his  tales. 
In  this  one  he  plainly  means  to  teach  us  that  we  grow  like 
that  which  we  constantly  watch  and  admire  and  meditate 
on  —  to  show  the  influence  which  the  vision  of  "the  Good, 
the  True,  and  the  Beautiful"  may  have  on  character.    The 
influence  of  the  Face  did  not  make  Ernest  rich,  or  powerful, 
or  famous;  but  it  made  him  what  is  far  better  —  a  good  and 
wise  man. 

III.  The  story,  between  the  introduction  (1  above)  and 
the  conclusion  (6  above),  is  constructed  in  four  parallel  parts. 
These  correspond  to  four  periods  in  the  life  of  Ernest.    The 
following  chart  shows  this;  and  see  also  2,  3,  4,  5  above. 


a.  Life  of  Ernest. 

b.  Influence  of  Face  on 

Ernest. 

c.  "Great  Man." 

d.  People  receive  him. 

e.  Ernest  disappointed. 

f.  Face  reassures  him. 


Boyhood. 


3 

Young 
Manhood. 


4 

Middle 
Life. 


Old  Age. 


Rich  man.  General.        Statesman.     Poet. 


The  six  points  are  discussed  in  the  four  parts,  except  that 
d  and  /  are  omitted  in  5.     You  would  hardly  expect  the 


*li'  -at-^-'-H 


THE  GREAT  STONE  FACE 


NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE  261 

people  to  recognize  the  profound  wisdom  of  a  great  poet 
(d),  and  5/  is  omitted  because  the  story  begins  at  that  point 
to  prepare  for  its  climax;  i.  e.,  the  conclusion  begins.  What 
sentence  makes  the  climax  of  the  story? 

A  writer  without  skill  could  easily  fail,  in  four  parallel 
parts,  to  make  any  progress  toward  his  climax.  If  you  follow 
each  of  the  six  points  through  the  four  parts  you  will  readily 
see  how  the  story  rises  constantly,  and  why  the  climax  must 
be  where  it  is.  For  example,  c  begins  with  the  rich  man; 
how  little  real  greatness  there  is  in  a  selfish  miser,  though  he 
may  have  gathered  tons  of  gold.  A  good  general  certainly 
gives  his  country  valuable  service,  though  war  is  greatly  to 
be  deplored.  A  statesman  serves  his  country  honorably  in 
a  more  desirable  field  than  war.  And  a  great- poet  is  the 
benefactor,  not  only  of  his  country,  but  of  his  race.  Here  we 
can  plainly  see  progress  in  the  story.  The  climax  goes  one 
step  farther,  and  places  the  wise  and  good  man  above  even 
the  poet.  Go  through  the  other  five  points  and  show  how 
the  plot  rises  through  them  also  toward  the  climax.  The 
suspense  is  made  by  the  successive  disappointments  of 
Ernest. 

IV.  General  Questions. 

1.  Is  it  the  features  or  the  expression  of  the  Face  that  the 
Great  Man  is  to  resemble?    What  do  the  people  look  for? 
What  does  Ernest  look  for?     Study  the  prophecy  in  the 
introduction,  and  the  comparison  made  by  Ernest  of  each 
man  to  the  Face.    Why  do  not  the  people  recognize  Ernest 
as  the  man  of  prophecy?    Why  does  the  poet  recognize  him? 

2.  Why  is  not  Ernest  mistaken  when  every  one  else  is? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  names  of  persons  used  in  this 
story,  and  explain  the  meaning  of  each.    The  suggestiveness 
of  the  proper  names  gives  the  tale  an  allegorical  tone.    Lang- 


262         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

land,  Spenser,  and  Bunyan,  the  great  writers  of  allegory  in 
English,  use  names  descriptive  of  character. 

4.  Find   passages   in   this   story  where   Hawthorne   uses 
irony  —  or  perhaps  something  even  as  stinging  as  sarcasm. 

5.  With  the  structure  of  this  story  compare  that  of  David 
Swan  by  the  same  author. 

THE  AMBITIOUS  GUEST 

I.  Read  the  tale  thoughtfully. 

II.  The  unity  of  effect  in  this  tale  is  as  good  as  it  is  in  any 
of  Poe's.    The  proper  atmosphere  is  given  it  by  the  setting. 
Discuss  the  location  and  the  weather.    Go  through  the  story 
from  the  first  paragraph  to  the  climax,  and  list  every  reference 
to  avalanches  and  dismal  sounds.    Put  Avith  these  all  allu 
sions,  in  the  writer's  exposition  and  in  the  conversation  of  the 
characters,  to  impending  fate,  to  disaster,  and  to  death. 
Notice  how  these  expressions  of  foreboding  increase  in  fre 
quency  and  force  to  the  climax.    In  the  paragraph  that  ends 
with  the  shriek  of  terror,  the  words  gain  in  power,  as  they 
should  do  as  the  story  approaches  its  climax.     After  the 
climax,  quiet,  calm  sentences  "intimate,"  because  no  words 
can  adequately  "portray,"  the  overwhelming  horror  of  the 
catastrophe. 

III.  The  persons  of  this  story  are  the  center  of  interest; 
the  narrative  interests  us  as  it  affects  them.     Hawthorne 
opens  his  story  with  them,  because  characterization  is  his 
chief  purpose  in  the  tale.     Are  they  individuals,  or  types? 
Are  the  words  and  wishes  of  each  suited  to  his  age  and  station? 
Are  any  of  the  wishes  fulfilled  in  their  death?    Study  par 
ticularly  the  nameless  stranger,   who  is  more  complex  of 
character  than  the  simple  mountaineers.     "The  secret  of 
his  character"  is  clearly  explained  by  Hawthorne,  and  also 


.   NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE  263 

by  the  young  man  himself.  This  young  man  gives  the  moral 
thought  to  the  tale.  His  was  the  only  ambitious  soul  there; 
and  his  was  the  double  tragedy  —  death  and  oblivion.  The 
simple,  unambitious  family  are  known  by  name,  and  the 
scene  of  their  death  is  pointed  out  to  every  traveller  through 
the  White  Mountains.  But  the  "high-souled  youth,  with 
his  dream  of  earthly  immortality!  His  name  and  person 
utterly  unknown;  his  history,  his  way  of  life,  his  plans,  a 
mystery  never  to  be  solved;  his  death  and  his  existence 
equally  a  doubt!"  Whose  indeed  was  the  agony  of  death? 

Hawthorne  founded  this  story  on  an  actual  event.  See  Spaulding's 
Historical  Relics  of  the  White  Mountains.  ''Some  time  in  June,  before 
the  great  slide  in  August,  1826,  there  came  a  great  storm,  and  the  old 
veteran,  Abel  Crawford,  coming  down  the  Notch,  noticed  the  trees 
slipping  down,  standing  upright,  and  as  he  was  passing  Mr.  Willey's  he 
called  and  informed  him  of  the  wonderful  fact.  Immediately,  in  a  less 
exposed  place,  Mr.  Willey  prepared  a  shelter  to  which  to  flee  in  case 
of  immediate  danger,  and  in  the  night  of  August  28  in  that  year  he 
was,  with  his  whole  family,  awakened  by  the  thundering  crash  of  the 
coming  avalanche.  Attempting  to  escape,  the  family,  nine  in  number, 
rushed  from  the  house  and  were  overtaken  and  buried  alive  under  a 
vast  pile  of  rocks,  earth,  and  water.  By  a  remarkable  coincidence,  the 
house  remained  uninjured,  as  the  slide  divided  about  four  rods  back 
of  the  house,  against  a  high  flat  rock,  and  came  down  on  either  side  with 
overwhelming  power." 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SIDNEY  LANIER 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Memorial,  by  Wm.  Hayes  Ward,  in  Poems.    New  York,  1900. 
Life,  by  Edwin  Mims;  Boston,  1905. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Clover,  Corn,  The  Waving  of  the  Corn,  The  Mocking  Bird,  The 
Revenge  of  Hamish,  The  Stirrup-Cup,  My  Springs,  The  Symphony, 
How  Love  Looked  for  Hell. 

THE  SONG  OF  THE  CHATTAHOOCHEE 

I.  This  poem  is  a  description  of  the  course  of  a  river  that 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  Georgia,  passes  in  its  upper  course 
through  the  counties  of  Hall  and  Habersham,   and  flows 
through  the  lowlands  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

II.  The  movement  of  the  poem  is  rippling  and  animated,  as 
befits  the  song  of  a  mountain  stream.    The  stanzas  contain 
ten  lines  each,  the  first  two  and  the  last  two  having  three 
accents  each,  and  the  intermediate  six  having  four  accents 
each.     The  foot  has  sometimes  one  unaccented  syllable, 
sometimes  two,  the  two  very  short  ones  occupying  the  same 
time  as  the  one  longer  one.    The  effect  is  good,  for  it  makes 
the  alternately  rippling  and  flowing  movement  of  the  stream 
in  the  uplands.     Irregularity  in  meter  and  reversal  of  ac 
cent  help  to  produce  a  rippling  effect.     The  movement  is 

264 


SIDNEY  LANIER  265 

suggested  also  by  the  pauses  at  the  end  of  lines,  by  the  occa 
sional  run-on  lines,  and  by  a  few  rather  abrupt  pauses  within 
the  lines  (27,  28).  Most  of  the  internal  pauses  harmonize 
the  movement  of  the  poem  to  the  thought,  the  writer  enumer 
ating  the  obstacles  and  hindrances  in  the  path  of  the  stream. 
(Stanzas  2,  3,  4.)  The  long  vowel  in  " abide"  and  the  pause 
between  the  repetitions  retard  the  movement  of  the  poem, 
and  suit  it  to  the  movement  of  the  stream.  Note  also  line 
28.  Retard  is  necessary  for  careful  articulation  in  "grass 
said  Stay." 

III.  The  melody  of  the  poem  is  smooth  and  flowing,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  consonants  being  liquids  or  spirants. 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  alliteration,  and  some  of  it  is  double. 
This  helps  in  the  rippling  movement.     (Find  examples.) 
The  explosives,  also,  are  so  used  as  to  add  to  the  rippling 
effect;  see  particularly  line  5. 

IV.  The  rime  is  abcbcddcab.    The  final  cab  is  identical  in 
wording  with  the  initial  abc;  ab  is  identical  throughout  the 
poem.    Internal  rime  occurs  in  the  third  line  of  every  stanza, 
in  the  eighth  line  of  most  of  them,  and  in  the  sixth  line  of  the 
last.     This  repetition  of  sound  helps  to  make  the  rippling 
movement.     Similar  is  the  effect  of  riming   "glades"  — 
"shades  "(lines  29-30). 

V.  The  movement  of  the  last  stanza  is  slower  than  that  of 
the  first  four,  as  the  river  anticipates  its  slower  movement  on 
the  plain.    The  pauses  after  "avail"  and  "downward,"  and 
the  spondee  in  "fiields  burn,"  with  the  medial  pause  in  the 
same  line,  and  the  great  number  of  long  vowels  and  final 
spirants  throughout  the  stanza,  retard  the  flow  of  verse. 
This  corresponds  to  the  deeper  seriousness  of  the  fifth  stanza, 
in  which  the  poet  turns  from  mere  artistic  pleasure  in  the 
beauty  of  nature  to  consideration  of  the  activities  of  human 


266         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

life.    The  presence  of  the  word  "Duty"  in  the  stanza  gives 
it  a  different  note. 

VI.  Observe  how  the  poet  has  obtained  variety  in  the 
"application"  of  the  refrain  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end 
of  each  stanza.    See  Poe's  theory  of  the  refrain,  quoted  in  the 
study  of  Longfellow's  My  Lost  Youth. 

VII.  Prepare  to  read  the  poem  aloud.    Think,  as  you  read, 
of  the  course  of  the  river  and  of  its  movement  in  its  bed  — 
alternately  rippling  and  flowing. 

Compare  Tennyson's  The  Brook,  with  its  short  lines,  frequent 
pauses,  onomatopoetic  words,  abundant  alliteration,  and  extra  short 
syllable  at  the  end  of  lines  2  and  4  of  each  stanza.  Which  poem 
speaks  more  of  the  sound  made  by  the  stream?  What  differences 
in  diction  and  form  depend  on  imitations  of  sound  and  of  movement? 

TAMPA  ROBINS 

I.  The  poem  personifies  the  robin,  and  represents  him  as 
defying,  from  his  safe  refuge  in  a  Florida  orange-tree,  the 
northern  winter. 

II.  Study  the  following  details  of  the  poem. 
Line  2 :  Explain  the  words  of  defiance. 

Line  4 :  What  are  the  oranges  called  metaphorically? 

Line  5:  Think  of  "Time"  as  personified  in  the  figure  of  an 
old  man  with  a  scythe  over  his  shoulder. 

Line  6:  What  joys  does  the  robin  find  in  his  Florida  home? 

Line  7:  Refer  "globes"  to  line  4.  The  "globe"  suggests 
a  metaphor  taken  from  astronomy.  What  is  the  "leafy 
sky"?  What  are  the  oranges  called,  in  metaphor,  in  line  8? 
In  line  9?  Why  is  the  robin  metaphorically  a  "meteor"? 
Line  10  refers  to  the  ancient  superstitious  fear  of  meteors. 
Refer  "heavenly"  in  line  11  to  "sky"  in  line  7.  The  path  of 


SIDNEY  LANIER  267 

the  robin  ("meteor")  is  an  "orbit"  (line  12).  What  trail 
does  he  leave  behind  him,  as  he  flies  about  in  the  tree? 

Line  13:  The  leafless  trees  of  the  North  are  as  bare  and 
unattractive  as  " gibbets."  "Grave"  harmonizes  in  tone 
with  "gibbet,"  and  so  do  "slave"  and  "tyranny."  In  line 
18  the  robin  again  defies  the  stormy  North.  The  color  con 
trast  between  the  sunny  South  (stanza  2)  and  the  cold, 
desolate,  gray-white  North  (stanza  3)  is  effective. 

Line  20:  "King"  contrasts  with  "slave"  above. 

Line  21:  The  "torch"  (metaphor)  of  the  robin's  breast  is  a 
reflection  of  sun-light. 

Line  22:  "Green"  and  "gold"  of  what? 

Line  23 :  See  line  5  above. 

III.  The  poem  consists  of  four  six-line  stanzas,  riming 
aabbcc.    There  are  four  accents  in  each  line,  and  one  or  two 
unaccented  syllables  in  a  foot.     The  movement  is  iambic. 
The  many  liquids  and  sibilants  make  a  smooth  melody. 
Find  examples  of  alliteration.    Find  one  example  of  internal 
rime.    The  poem  is  animated  and  gay,  except  lines  13  to  16, 
which  are  cold  and  sombre.    Line  15  particularly,  by  spondee, 
cross-assonance  of  long  vowels,  and  alliteration  of  gutturals, 
harmonizes  the  movement  to  the  thought. 

IV.  Throw  yourself  into  the  gay,  saucy,  defiant  spirit  of 
the  robin,  and  read  the  poem  aloud.    Bring  out  clearly  all  the 
sound  effects  you  have  studied  under  III. 

THE  MARSHES  OF  GLYNN 

I.  The  poet  is  describing  the  salt  marshes  of  Glynn  County, 
Georgia,  on  the  coast  near  the  city  of  Brunswick. 

He  has  spent  the  day  in  the  live-oak  forest,  and  has  been 
refreshed  in  the  noon-tide  heat  by  its  shade  (lines  12,  19-21, 


268         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

25).  As  twilight  comes  on  (lines  21,  22)  he  steps  out  into  the 
open  marshes  (lines  22-25,  35^7),  and  faces  eastward 
(lines  55,  56),  toward  a  world  of  marsh,  and  sea,  and  sky. 
For  some  reason  his  heart  is  troubled  (lines  15,  17,  26-28,  63, 
69,  70) ;  he  needs  the  comfort  and  the  inspiration  that  Nature 
can  give  those  who  truly  love  her.  And  Nature  teaches  him 
her  lesson  and  offers  him  her  consolation.  From  "the  length 
and  the  breadth  and  the  sweep"  of  the  marsh  and  the  sea, 
there  comes  to  him  a  sense  of  infinity  (lines  71-78).  Their 
beauty,  their  vastness,  "nothing-withholding  and  free," 
speak  to  him  of  the  omnipresence,  the  omnipotence,  and  the 
benevolence  —  the  "greatness"  —  of  the  Infinite  Spirit  that 
pervades  the  universe.  The  tide  comes  in  ; 

The  sea  and  the  marshes  are  one.     (Line  94.) 

The  poet  feels  and  believes  in  (line  29)  the  harmony  and  the 
perfect  oneness  of  the  universe  and  its  Creator.  The  tide 
reaches  its  height  (line  95);  night  falls  (line  98).  Peace  has 
flowed  into  and  over  the  troubled  soul,  as  the  sea  has  covered 
the  Marshes  of  Glynn;  and  the  poet  goes  home  (line  100)  to 
rest  and  sleep. 

II.,  Make  a  statement  about  the  character  of  the  thought 
in  this  poem.  Then  show  how  the  style  harmonizes  with  the 
thought  in  the  following  particulars :  — 

1.  Diction:  choice  of  nouns;  of  verbs;  of  adjectives;  epi 
thets,  poetic-compounds,  color-words,  words  indicating  light 
and  shade;  contrast  of  the  dusky  forest,  the  green  marshes, 
and  the  silvery  beach;  other  methods  of  description. 

2.  Sentences:  structure;  length. 

3.  Figures:  simile;  metaphor;  apostrophe;  personification. 

4.  Versification:  stanza  or  paragraph;  rime;  meter,  use  of 
spondee;  effect  of  long  and  short  lines;  pauses;  run-on  lines. 


SIDNEY  LANIER  269 

5.  Melody:    use    of    liquids    and    spirants;    alliteration; 
assonance;  internal  rime. 

6.  Harmony:   repetition;   onomatopoea;   other   harmonic 
effects. 

III.  With  lines  30-34  compare  Lanier's  From  the  Flats. 
Evidently  the  low  coast  did  not  always  inspire  poetic  exalta 
tion  in  Lanier's  soul.  For  the  influence  of  the  marshes  on 
Lanier,  one  should  read  also  Marsh  Song  —  at  Sunset,  and 
Sunrise.  The  sunrise  brings  the  poet  strength  and  courage, 
as  the  sunset  brings  him  peace. 

Is  the  last  paragraph  of  the  poem  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  rest?  Should  you  prefer  to  close  with  the  line 

And  it  is  night? 

Does  the  poet  do  well  to  remind  us  that  his  peace  is,  after  all 
not  too  profound;  that  underneath  it  lie  the  uncertainties  that 
belong  to  all  discussion  of  and  meditation  on  the  problems  of 
life?  Should  he  show  us  that  he  has  attained  peace  and  self- 
control  while  facing  with  courage  and  strength  the  fact  that 
he  does  not  —  cannot  —  know  below  the  surface?  Or  would 
it  be  better  here  to  end  with  the  peace,  and  ignore  the  igno 
rance  he  could  not  enlighten?  Which  method  would  end  the 
poem  most  effectively?  There  would  have  been  nothing  false 
to  life  in  the  omission  of  the  last  paragraph,  for  there  occa 
sionally  come  to  men  moods  in  which  faith  is,  for  the  time, 
absolute,  and  doubt  and  uncertainty  are  forgotten.  Such  a 
mood  Wordsworth  has  expressed  in  T intern  Abbey: 

that  blessed  mood, 
In  which  the  burden  of  the  mystery, 
In  which  the  heavy  and  the  weary  weight 
Of  all  this  unintelligible  world, 
Is  lightened:  —  that  serene  and  blessed  mood, 


270         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

In  which  the  affections  gently  lead  us  on, 
Until,  the  breath  of  this  corporeal  frame 
And  even  the  motion  of  our  human  blood 
Almost  suspended,  we  are  laid  asleep 
In  body  and  become  a  living  soul : 
While  with  an  eye  made  quiet  by  the  power 
Of  harmony,  and  the  deep  power  of  joy, 
We  see  into  the  life  of  things. 

Was  Lanier's  such  a  mood?  Has  he  used  in  the  course  of 
the  poem  expressions  that  would  lead  you  to  suppose  it  was? 
Is  there  any  suggestion  of  the  grotesque  in  the  last  lines? 
Do  you  feel  that  they  are  in  any  way  out  of  harmony  with 
the  rest  of  the  poem? 

IV.  Do  you  consider  this  poem  strong  in  rhetorical  effects? 
Do  these  devices  distract  you  from  the  thought?    Do  you 
think  a  simpler  style  would  be  better  for  the  expression  of  a 
thought  so  vast  and  sublime?    Would  you  prefer  a  different 
meter?    Bryant  has  expressed  sublime  thoughts  in  simpler 
and  more  stately  verse ;  do  you  think  he  has  suited  his  expres 
sion  to  his  thought  better  than  Lanier?    As  well? 

V.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Make  the  thought  as  forcible  as 
possible.    Bring  out  the  music  of  the  lines. 


CHAPTER  XX 
WALT  WHITMAN 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Whitman,  2  Vol.,  by  Horace  Traubel;  Boston,  1905. 

Walt  Whitman,  by  Thos.  Donaldson;  New  York,  1896. 

Reminiscences,  by  W.  S.  Kennedy;  Philadelphia,  1896. 

Life,  by  R.  M.  Bucke;  Philadelphia,  1883. 

Walt  Whitman,  by  Wm.  Clarke;  New  York,  1892. 

A  Study  of  Whitman,  by  John  Burroughs;  Boston,  1896. 

Whitman,  A  Study,  by  John  Addington  Symonds;  London,   1893. 

An  Approach  to  Walt  Whitman,  by  Carleton  Noyes;  Boston,  1910. 

Life,  by  Bliss  Perry;  Boston,  1906. 

Life,  by  George  Rice  Carpenter;  New  York,  1909. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

A  careful  selection  of  Whitman's  poems  should  be  made  for  young 
people.  There  is  a  volume  by  Oscar  L.  Triggs  (Boston,  1898),  another 
by  E.  Holmes  (London  and  New  York,  1902),  and  yet  another  by  Wm. 
M.  Rossetti  (London,  1895). 

O  CAPTAIN!  MY  CAPTAIN! 

I.  Whitman  was  a  nurse  and  attendant  in  the  hospitals  of 
the  Civil  War.  His  best  work  for  the  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers  is  said  to  have  been  his  ministration  to  their  lonely 
hearts.  He  had  the  tenderness  and  thoughtfulness  of  a 
woman.  The  chronicle  of  his  life  from  1862  to  the  end  of  the 
War  is  one  of  great  and  unselfish  devotion.  Whitman,  there 
fore,  though  not  a  soldier  himself,  had  a  right  to  feel  toward 

271 


272         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

the  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Northern  armies  as  the 
soldiers  felt.  He  had  seen  President  Lincoln,  and  recognized 
in  him  the  great  man  the  whole  nation  has  since  learned  to 
know  and  honor.  See  Whitman's  prose  works,  particularly 
Specimen  Days.  The  best  of  the  poems  in  honor  of  Lincoln 
were  written  by  this  then  obscure  hospital  attendant. 

II.  0  Captain!  My  Captain!  is  a  lamentation  for  the  death 
of  Lincoln.    The  poem  is  constructed  entirely  in  metaphor, 
conceiving  the  nation  under  the  image  of  a  ship.    The  ship 
has  safely  arrived  in  port  after  a  stormy,  dangerous  voyage; 
and  amid  all  the  rejoicing  and  congratulations,  the  Captain, 
to  whom  is  due  the  credit  for  the  safety  of  the  ship,  has  fallen 
dead  on  the  deck.    As  Lincoln  was  killed  just  at  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  the  figure  is  an  excellent  and  appropriate  one. 
One  remembers,  too,  that  the  same  metaphor  was  used  for 
the  nation  in  the  last  paragraph  of  Longfellow's  Building  0} 
the  Ship,  and  that  President  Lincoln  listened  to  that  passage 
in   silence,    with    tearful    eyes.      (See   Scribner's   Monthly, 
August,  1879,  "Lincoln's  Imagination,"  by  Noah  Brooks.) 
This  fact  gives  the  figure  an  almost  sacred  significance  in 
the  poem  which  laments  the  untimely  death  of  the  great 
President. 

III.  The  poem  has  also  great  beauty  of  movement  and 
melody.    In  April,  1865,  the  nation  was  divided  in  feeling  be 
tween  joy  over  the  successful  end  of  the  war  and  sorrow  for 
the  death  of  the  President.    The  first  four  lines  of  the  first  two 
stanzas  are  of  descriptive  character;  they  give  an  account  of 
the  entrance  of  the  ship  into  port,  and  express  the  nation's  joy 
at  the  safety  of  the  ship.    These  lines  are  long  and  smooth  — 
7xa.    The  last  four  lines  of  these  stanzas  are  short  and  broken; 
they  express  the  deep  distress  of  the  poet  at  the  death  of  the 
Captain.    After  the  passion  of  grief  expressed  in  the  latter 


WALT  WHITMAN  273 

part  of  the  first  two  stanzas,  the  poet  masters  himself  with  the 
restraint  of  a  strong  man,  and  utters  in  the  last  stanza  the 
abiding  sorrow  that  tempers  and  sobers  the  exultation  of 
the  victor. . 

IV.  Try  to  imagine  yourself  back  in  1865.  You  have  often 
seen  Lincoln,  and  have  felt  his  tenderness  and  greatness. 
You  love  as  well  as  admire  him.  You  are  glad  that  the  Union 
is  preserved,  but  you  mourn  the  death  of  the  President.  Read 
the  poem,  and  show  your  emotions  in  your  reading. 

WHEN  LILACS  LAST  IN  THE  DOCKYARD  BLOOM'D 

I.  This  is  Whitman's  burial  hymn  for  Lincoln.  The  Presi 
dent  was  killed  in  Washington,  on  April  14,  1865,  and  his 
body  was  taken  for  burial  to  Springfield,  Illinois.  The 
particulars  of  the  assassination  and  the  account  of  the  passage 
of  the  funeral  train  through  the  country  may  be  read  in  any 
biography  of  Lincoln.  The  following  brief  account,  taken 
from  Butterworth's  History  of  America,  tells  all  that  it  is 
necessary  to  know  in  reading  this  poem.  "  The  sad  procession 
moved  on  its  long  journey  of  nearly  two  thousand  miles, 
traversing  the  states  of  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  Everywhere,  as  the 
funeral  train  passed,  the  weeping  people  sought  to  give 
expression  to  their  reverential  sorrow.  At  the  great  cities 
the  body  lay  in  state,  and  all  business  was  suspended."  * 

The  poet  begins  his  funeral  chant  in  great  sorrow;  but, 
through  meditation  and  the  healing  power  of  Nature,  he 
regains  serenity  and  cheerfulness. 

For  Whitman's  attitude  toward  death  see:  Assurances, 
Whispers  of  Heavenly  Death,  Song  of  Myself  (sections  6,  48), 

*  Used  by  permission  of  Estes  and  Lauriat. 


274         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Joy,  Shipmate,  Joy,  and  Out  of  the  Cradle  Endlessly  Rock 
ing. 

II.  The  central  figure  of  the  poem  is  The  Man  (stanzas  1,  5, 
6,  10,  11,  12,  14,  15,  16);  because  of  the  occasion,  Death  is  the 
burden  of  the  thought  (stanzas  7,  14,  15).    Three  objects  of 
nature  are  associated  with  the  occasion:  the  lilac  (stanzas 
1,  3,  6  (end),  7,  13,  16);  the  star  (stanzas  1,  2,  8,  9,  13,  16); 
and  the  bird  (stanzas  4,  9,  13,  14,  15,  16). 

III.  Read  the  poem  carefully  with  the  following  notes: 
Line  1 :  Lilacs  are  in  bloom  in  April  in  Washington. 

Line  4:  The  "trinity"  are  named  in  the  next  two  lines. 

Line  7 :  The  "  star  "  of  the  west,  in  figure,  is  Lincoln,  though 
we  must  understand  that  the  poet  has  in  mind,  in  the  poem, 
an  actual  star  as  well.  The  "murk"  is,  in  figure,  death;  the 
"cruel  hands"  and  the  "cloud"  are  the  atmosphere  of 
grief. 

Line  12:  Whitman  shows  his  reverence  for  nature  in  his 
description  of  the  lilac-bush. 

Line  19:  The  hermit  thrush  is  one  of  the  most  timid  of 
birds,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  musical. 

Line  24 :  The  poet  needs  the  relief  of  expression  as  much  as 
the  bird  does. 

Line  26 :  This  stanza  and  the  next  describe  the  route  of  the 
funeral  train  through  the  country  and  through  the  cities,  and 
mention  the  honor  everywhere  paid  the  body  of  the  martyred 
President.  Services  were  held  along  the  route,  as  the  train 
passed.  Line  45  goes  back  to  line  17. 

Line  46:  Whitman  turns  from  the  death  of  one  to  the 
thought  of  death  as  the  fate  of  all.  What  adjectives  does  he 
apply  to  death  in  line  48? 

Line  55:  Whitman  remembers  that  he  had  had,  a  month 
ago,  while  watching  the  evening  star,  premonitions  of  trouble 


WALT  WHITMAN  275 

and  disaster.  The  disappearance  of  the  star  (lines  63-65)  is 
again  symbolic  (see  lines  7-9)  of  the  death  of  Lincoln. 

Line  66 :  See  stanza  4. 

Line  75 :  Springfield  is  thought  of  as  near  the  center  of  the 
country.  Lines  74-77  answer  line  73.  In  spirit  the  poet  is  at 
the  tomb. 

Line  78:  The  decoration  of  the  tomb  is  the  poet's  next 
theme.  The  pictures  he  mentions  (lines  81-89)  are  national. 
They  represent  all  parts  of  the  land  —  country  and  city; 
every  class  and  every  occupation.  Why  is  this  appropriate? 
Line  90:  Whitman's  home  was  New  York.  All  the  beauty 
of  our  varied  and  beautiful  earth  and  sky  should  be  pictured 
on  the  tomb  of  the  great  President,  who  worked  to  keep  us  a 
united  nation. 

Line  99:  See  stanza  9. 

Line  106:  See  line  70. 

Line  108:  The  poet  surveys  the  whole  country,  and  finds 
that  the  shadow  of  death  darkens  everywhere,  that  no  class 
or  age  or  station  is  exempt  from  it. 

Lines  120-122:  Name  the  three  "companions"  holding 
hands  in  the  night.  What  is  the  thought  that  drives  the 
poet  out  into  the  night? 

Line  126:  See  stanzas  13,  9,  4. 

Line  127:  See  line  120. 

Line  133:  See  line  122. 

Lines  135-162:  These  are  the  thoughts  that  the  song  of  the 
thrush  in  the  darkness  inspires  in  the  poet.  List  the  adjec 
tives  used  to  describe  Death.  What  names  is  she  called? 
What  is  the  poet's  attitude  toward  her?  Whitman  believed 
that  everything  natural  is  right,  wise,  and  wholesome.  Death 
is  natural;  therefore  he  chants  a  song  of  praise  to  Death. 

Line  163:  See  line  134. 


276         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Line  164:  See  line  126. 

Line  166:  See  line  130. 

Line  168:  See  lines  120-122. 

Lines  170-184:  The  poet  sees  in  imagination  the  panorama 
of  war  and  death,  which  he  has  so  often  seen  in  reality. 
What  comforting  reflection  does  he  find  in  all  this  painful 
picture  (lines  180,  181)? 

Line  185:  The  visions  of  stanza  15.  "Passing"  by  in 
thought.  Line  186:  See  line  122.  Line  187:  See  line  134. 
Line  188:  See  line  24.  Line  193:  See  line  13.  Lines  195- 
197:  See  line  70.  As  the  end  of  the  poem  approaches,  the 
poet  gathers  up  his  material  —  the  bird,  the  lilac,  the  star. 
Line  200:  See  line  134.  Line  201:  See  line  61.  Line  202: 
See  line  133.  Line  203:  See  line  122.  Notice  the  return  to 
the  personal  in  lines  203-204. 

What  has  the  poet  "to  keep"  (line  198)  out  of  this  night's 
visions  and  revelations? 

IV.  Whitman  has  certain  peculiarities  of  style  which  must 
be  understood  in  a  measure  before  one  can  read  his  poems 
successfully. 

1.  He  uses  broken  sentence-structure  and  exclamation  to 
express  intense  feeling.    For  examples  see  stanzas  2  and  13. 
We  have  found  the  same  use  of  broken  sentences  in  0  Cap 
tain! 

2.  He  makes  long  series  of  phrases  and  clauses  in  parallel 
structure,  usually  for  the  purpose  of  cataloguing  in  descrip 
tion.    Find  examples  in  stanzas  5,  6,  8,  11,  14. 

3.  These  series  sometimes  form  very  long  periodic  sen 
tences.    See  stanzas  5,  6, 14, 16. 

4.  Instead  of  the  conventional  poetic  line  made  up  of  a 
certain   number   of  feet   with   regularly   arranged   accents, 
Whitman   often   uses   a   rhythmic,   swinging   chant.     The 


WALT  WHITMAN  277 

phrases  or  clauses  should  be  read  rather  rapidly,  as  the  units 
of  the  composition,  and  the  pauses  should  be  clearly  and 
fully  marked.  In  reading,  have  in  mind  the  phrasing  and 
the  monotone  of  the  musical  chant,  and  give  the  poetry  the 
same  movement. 

In  some  of  Whitman's  poems  he  exaggerates  his  manner 
isms  offensively;  but  in  this  funeral  hymn  the  chant  is  most 
appropriate.  It  is  used  effectively  also  in  Out  of  the  Cradle 
Endlessly  Rocking,  and  in  a  number  of  the  other  of  his  best 
poems. 

OUT  OF  THE  CRADLE  ENDLESSLY  ROCKING 

I.  This  poem  was  first  called  A  Child's  Reminiscences.    It 
is  an  account  of  Whitman's  earliest  conscious,  strong  poetic 
impulse.     The  boy  lived  in  a  small  town  on  Long  Island, 
which  he  calls  by  its  Indian  name,  Paumanok.    The  circum 
stances  under  which  his  soul  was  so  deeply  touched  we  learn 
from  the  poem. 

II.  Read  the  poem  carefully  with  these  notes. 

Lines  1-22  give  the  circumstances  under  which  the  man 
recalls  the  experience  and  writes  the  reminiscence  (lines  20- 
22).  Line  1:  "The  cradle  endlessly  rocking"  is  the  sea. 
Line  3:  At  what  time  of  year  does  Whitman  revisit  his  old 
home?  When  does  he  go  down  to  the  beach  to  muse?  Line  4 : 
The  child  he  remembers  had  gone  out  in  the  night,  too. 
Line  11:  The  bird-notes  recall  the  bird-song  of  earlier  days 
(lines  8,  9) .  The  paragraph  is  composed  of  one  of  Whitman's 
long  series,  and  the  main  part  is  at  the  end;  it  is  a  periodic 
sentence.  "I,  a  man,  sing  a  reminiscence  out  of  all"  these 
things,  which  bring  to  memory  my  boyhood  experience  in  the 
same  scene. 

Line  23  begins  the  reminiscence.    Line  24  gives  the  time 


278         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

of  the  experience.  Lines  23-31  tell  of  the  boy's  love  for  and 
interest  in  the  birds.  Lines  32-40  give  the  song  of  the  male 
bird;  he  shows  his  happiness  in  his  union  with  his  mate  by  the 
repetition  of  "we  two." 

Lines  41-45  tell  of  the  disappearance  of  the  female.  Lines 
46-129  show  the  loneliness  of  her  mate  through  the  remainder 
of  the  season,  and  the  boy's  sympathy  with  the  bird.  Line 
62:  "Has  treasured"  them  because  they  taught  him  so 
much  (line  69).  The  poet  "translates"  the  bird's  song  into 
English  words. 

Lines  130ff.  describe  the  scene  in  which  the  boy  hears  the 
bird's  song  of  "lonesome  love."  The  "fierce  old  mother" 
is  the  sea.  With  line  135  compare  line  10;  the  scene  of  the 
boy's  experience  is  identical  with  the  scene  of  the  man's 
reverie. 

Line  136  turns  to  the  effect  of  the  scene  and  the  song  on  the 
boy.  Line  139:  See  line  18.  The  trio  (line  140)  are  the 
bird,  the  sea,  and  the  boy's  questioning  soul.  Line  142: 
Whitman,  receiving  his  first  poetic  impulse.  Line  144: 
Demon  has  its  old  meaning,  "spirit."  Lines  146-149: 
The  poetic  spirit  of  the  boy  is  awakened  by  the  scene,  the 
music,  and  the  emotion.  Line  151:  In  his  poetry.  Line 
153:  The  cries  he  heard  from  the  bird.  Line  154:  See  lines 
146,  147.  Line  155:  See  line  135.  Lines  156,  157:  The 
"divine  fire"  of  poetic  inspiration.  Line  160:  He  wants  the 
clue  to  the  unknown  longing  (line  157).  The  word  is  given 
in  line  169.  Line  169:  The  first  time  "the  knowledge  of 
death"  and  "the  thought  of  death"  came  to  the  boy  per 
sonally  and  powerfully  must  have  been  with  the  loss  of  the 
bird.  Line  170:  See  line  140.  Line  175:  "Demon,"  see 
line  143.  Line  176:  See  line  134.  Line  177:  He  has  heard  the 
same  song  many  times  since  in  the  world.  See  line  12. 


WALT  WHITMAN  279 

Line  178:  This  was  the  beginning  of  his  poetic  inspiration. 
Lines  179-183:  See  lines  165-169  and  14. 

III.  The  poem  draws  material  from  nature  —  the  sea, 
the  bird,  the  moonlight  scene.    These  are  brought  into  con 
nection  with  humanity,  teaching  the  boy's  soul  the  great 
secret  of  existence  —  Death.     Compare  this  with  the  in 
fluence  of  the  lilac,  the  star,  the  bird  on  the  man  who  wrote 
the  burial  hymn  for  Lincoln,  and  reached,  through  the  song 
of  the  thrush,  serenity  and  cheerfulness  in  the  presence  of 
death.    In  both  poems  the  listener  gives  articulate  language 
to  the  bird's  song —  "  translates  "  it.     In  Out  of  the  Cradle 
Endlessly  Rocking  the  bird  sings  him  a  song  of  unsatisfied 
love  (line  153) ;  the  boy's  questioning  soul  demands  the  clue 
to  this  mystery  of  life  (line  158);  and  the  sea  whispers  him 
the  final  word,  superior  to  all  (line  161):  the  word  that 
names  the  condition  in  which  all  mysteries  shall  be  made 
manifest  and  all  longings  shall  be  satisfied.     The  poem  is 
important  as  giving  an  account  of  the  beginning  of  conscious 
poetic  inspiration  in  Whitman.     For  Whitman's  attitude 
toward  death,  see  again  the  references  given  in  the  study  of 
When  Lilacs  Last  in  the  Dooryard  Bloom' d.    Make  a  list  of  the 
adjectives  applied  to  death  in  this  poem,  and  compare  them 
with  those  used  in  other  poems. 

IV.  Refer  to  the  list  of  Whitman's  peculiarities  of  style 
given  in  the  study  of  When  Lilacs  Last  in  the  Dooryard 
Bloom'd,  and  illustrate  each  item  from  this  poem. 

V.  Read  the  poem  aloud.    Remember  that  Whitman  has 
written  a  rhythmic  chant,  not  a  poem  in  conventional  meter. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON 

REFERENCE  BIOGRAPHIES 

Life,  by  George  Willis  Cooke;  Boston,  1881 

Life,  by  O.  W.  Holmes;  Boston,  1886. 

Life,  by  Richard  Garnett;  London,  1888. 

Life  and  Works,  by  Elizabeth  L.  Gary;  New  York,  1904. 

Emerson,  by  John  S.  Harrison;  New  York,  1910. 

Emerson,  by  F.  B.  Sanborn;  Boston,  1885. 

Life,  by  George  E.  Woodberry;  New  York,  1907. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Voluntaries  (1863),  Terminus,  Threnody,  Dirge,  The  Apology,  The 
Humble-Bee,  Fable,  Concord  Hymn,  Boston  Hymn,  The  Rhodora,  The 
Snow-Storm,  Each  and  All,  Woodnotes  I. 

Representative  Men,  Nature,  The  Over-Soul. 

See  also  Appendix  I,  titles  40  to  46  inclusive. 

SOME  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  EMERSON'S  ESSAYS 

Emerson's  purpose  is  not  so  much  to  think  a  subject  through  for 
his  readers  and  give  them  the  result  of  his  meditation  as  it  is  to 
startle  them  into  thinking  for  themselves.  This  his  style  is  pecu 
liarly  fitted  to  do.  He  does  not  "look  at  both  sides  of  a  question," 
and  load  his  sentences  with  clauses  qualifying  the  main  statement; 
rather  he  throws  at  the  reader  a  strong  assertion,  so  one-sided  that 
at  first  it  almost  provokes  contradiction.  His  purpose  being  to 
stimulate  thought,  he  could  use  no  better  device.  His  short,  pointed 
sentences  rouse  the  mind  to  vigorous  action.  Another  effect  of  his 

280 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  281 

short  sentences  is  that  when  he  writes,  in  different  essays  or  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  essay,  on  different  phases  of  a  subject,  he 
seems  to  contradict  himself.  As  we  read  him,  we  are  always  to  un 
derstand  that  we  are  looking  at  his  theme  from  one  angle  only.  He 
looks  out  upon  society  and  sees  a  tendency  to  bend  too  far  in  one 
direction;  he  declares  strongly  for  a  bias  in  the  opposite  direction; 
and  the  resultant  is  a  perpendicular  —  the  correct  position,  and  the 
one  he  really  desires  and  expects  to  obtain.  We  cannot  choose  a 
sentence  expressing  in  his  strong  fashion  a  one-sided  opinion,  and 
say,  "  Emerson  thought  thus  or  so."  We  must  make  a  composite 
picture  of  his  utterances  on  a  subject.  We  shall  then  find  him  well- 
balanced,  temperate,  and  reasonable. 

Since  Emerson's  purpose  is  to  put  strongly  one  side  or  phase  of  a 
subject,  we  can  readily  see  that  his  essays  do  not  outline  as  easily  as 
those  of  a  more  formal  writer,  who  regards  his  subject,  in  an  orderly 
and  logical  fashion,  first  on  one  side,  then  on  another,  from  every 
angle  and  point  of  view.  Neither  could  they  be  studied  as  models 
of  coherence.  Words  of  transition  are  conspicuously  wanting,  and 
the  progress  and  connection  of  his  thought  is  not  always  immedi 
ately  apparent.  These  characteristics,  also,  tax  the  reader's  powers 
of  interpretation  and  stimulate  his  mind. 

Statements  of  abstract  truths  must  be  illustrated  by  examples, 
stories,  anecdotes,  etc.,  that  they  may  become  not  only  more  clear 
but  more  vital.  Frequently  Emerson  does  this  for  the  reader;  when 
he  does  not,  the  reader  should  do  it  for  himself. 

The  studies  suggested  here  assume  that  the  student  is  provided 
with  an  annotated  text,  which  gives  him  sufficient  help  on  allusions; 
the  notes  and  questions  here  will  not  then,  as  a  rule,  mention  allu 
sions  to  mythology,  history,  biography,  etc.  The  student  is  ex 
pected  to  explain  also,  without  special  question,  the  figures  and 
comparisons  used  by  the  author.  If  he  will  note  carefully  the  sources 
from  which  they  are  drawn,  he  will  learn  much  of  the  mind  and 
scholarship  of  Emerson.  He  should  study  also,  without  further 
question,  every  sentence  in  its  relation  to  the  general  thought.  The 
expression  is  often  so  unique  that,  without  careful  attention,  a 


282         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

sentence  is  nothing  but  empty  words.    Sometimes  the  key  to  the 
sentence  is  in  some  peculiarity  of  diction. 

Since  Emerson's  purpose  is  moral,  since  he  is  trying  to  uplift 
the  heart  and  mind  he  touches,  since  the  sphere  of  his  thought 
is  common  and  universal  human  life,  the  student  should  con 
stantly  illustrate  and  test  the  author's  assertions  from  his  own 
observation  and  experience  of  life.  And  he  should  memorize 
daily  a  sentence  worth  remembering  for  its  influence  on  practical 
living. 

FRIENDSHIP 

Paragraphs  1,2:  Human  beings  feel  more  kindness  for  one 
another  than  they  express. 

Do  you  think  Emerson  is  right?  Illustrate  your  opinion 
from  your  experience.  Do  you  know  any  persons  who  do  not 
agree  with  Emerson?  What  effect  has  the  opinion  of  such  a 
man  on  his  disposition? 

Paragraph  3:  We  exert  ourselves  to  show  friendliness 
and  hospitality. 

Does  Emerson  describe  correctly  our  preparations  for  a 
guest?  Have  you  ever  had  his  experience  with  a  stranger 
whom  you  hoped  to  make  a  friend? 

Paragraphs  4-6:  We  are  drawn  to  friends  by  the  mutual 
affinity  of  the  best  that  is  in  us,  and  friendship  is  the  source 
of  the  most  beautiful  emotions  we  can  feel. 

Examine  your  friendships :  do  you  find  them,  as  Emerson 
found  his,  based  on  moral  and  intellectual  comradeship? 
Do  you  find  in  them  the  beauty  and  joy  he  found  in  his? 
Are  you  as  appreciative  and  generous  toward  your  friends 
as  he  is  toward  his?  Do  you  think  his  ideal  is  too 
high? 

Paragraphs  7-10 :  We  idealize  our  friends  —  perhaps  un- 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  283 

reasonably;  and  lose  them  because  they  do  not  satisfy  the 
ideal  we  have  made. 

Doubt  (paragraph  7)  means  "  suspect."  If  we  cannot  offer 
perfection  to  our  friends,  have  we  a  right  to  expect  them  to 
be  perfect?  Do  we  learn  to  know  our  friends  at  their  best  in 
a  short  time? 

Paragraphs  11,  12:  Real  friendship  permits  —  even  de 
mands  —  perfect  sincerity. 

Can  you  show  your  true  self  to  your  friends?  Do  you  feel 
enough  confidence  in  them  to  wish  to  know  their  true 
selves? 

Paragraph  13:  Friendship  implies  disinterested  love  and 
service. 

Illustrate  this  phase  of  friendship  from  your  observation 
or  reading. 

Paragraphs  14,  15:  The  best  conversation  can  occur  only 
between  two  congenial  persons. 

Is  Emerson  right  in  limiting  the  number  to  twol  Can  you 
explain  why  two  can  converse  better  than  three?  Why  can 
you  converse  with  some  persons  and  not  with  others? 

Paragraphs  16,  17:  Friendship  does  not  demand  absolute 
likeness,  nor  perfect  agreement  in  opinion;  it  demands 
individuality  and  sincerity. 

Does  Emerson  express  your  opinion  in  paragraph  16? 
Do  you  wish  your  friends  to  treat  your  individuality  as  Emer 
son  recommends  in  paragraph  17?  If  so,  is  it  fair  that  you 
should  respect  theirs?  Does  this  mean  that  you  must  be 
blind  to  a  friend's  faults? 

Paragraph  18:  Friendship  does  not  intrude  nor  demand 
too  much. 

Does  Emerson  describe  here  a  friendship  less  personal  and 
more  purely  intellectual  than  you  would  enjoy?  Would  a 


284        STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

more  personal  attitude  necessarily  imply  lack  of  respect  or 
"  reverence"? 

Paragraphs  19,  20:  We  need  time  to  show  our  best  nature 
to  those  we  would  have  for  friends. 

Have  you  had  the  experience  Emerson  mentions  in  para 
graph  19?  When  (paragraph  20)  can  men  become  true 
friends?  What  men  can  become  true  friends?  Does  Emerson 
here  contradict  paragraphs  16,  17? 

Paragraph  21.  The  ideal  friendship  seems  beyond  attain 
ment  in  this  world;  yet  we  cannot  afford  to  let  ourselves 
decline  to  any  one  lower  than  the  highest. 

Define  "God;"  "demonstrate." 

Paragraphs  22,  23 :  We  cannot  afford  to  be  too  dependent 
on  our  friends. 

Does  Emerson  mean  to  say  that  books,  and  travel,  and 
society  are  of  no  value?  What  is  the  danger  of  too  much 
society?  See  also  paragraph  16. 

Paragraph  24:  A  real  friendship  may  be  one-sided;  even 
if  the  object  is  unworthy,  the  feeling  exalts  the  one  who 
experiences  it. 

Should  you  enjoy  such  a  friendship  as  is  here  described? 
Do  the  thoughts  expressed  in  the  last  three  sentences  belong 
to  your  ideal  of  friendship? 

Write  a  paragraph  expressing  in  your  own  words  Emerson's  ideal 
of  friendship.  Write  another  which  shall  express  your  own. 

HEROISM 

Paragraphs  1-4:  Introduction.  Paragraphs  1,  2:  Heroism 
as  shown  in  literature;  paragraphs  3,  4:  Our  need  of  such 
pictures. 

How  does  the  quotation  from   The  Triumph  of  Honor 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  285 

illustrate  the  statement  of  Emerson?  Illustrate  from  your 
own  reading.  Have  we  in  ordinary  life  any  need  of  heroism? 
Can  you  mention  more  instances  than  Emerson  has  put  into 
paragraphs  3  and  4? 

Paragraph  5:  Some  characteristics  of  heroism. 

Find  all  the  characteristics  of  heroism  mentioned  here. 
Does  Emerson  state  any  of  them  in  too  extreme  a  fashion? 
Think  of  some  heroic  action  —  as  the  defence  of  the  Greeks 
at  Thermopylae  —  and  test  these  characteristics  by  that. 
Why  does  Emerson  put  feeling  above  reason?  Discuss  this 
principle  as  worked  out  concretely  in  a  story  named  "Greater 
Love,"  in  Harper's  Magazine  for  April,  1908.  (See  Appen 
dix  II.)  Do  you  wish  to  add  to  or  subtract  from  Emerson's 
statement? 

Paragraphs  6,  7 :  Heroism  makes  a  man  despise  popularity 
and  pleasure. 

Illustrate  paragraph  6  from  your  knowledge  of  history  and 
biography.  Why  should  this  be  the  law  of  society?  Has 
Emerson  made  a  perfectly  accurate  line  of  division  in  para 
graph  7?  Do  all  heroic  men  scorn  pleasure? 

Paragraph  8 :  The  heroic  man  offers  a  simple  and  generous 
hospitality. 

Why  should  this  topic  be  included  in  this  essay? 

Paragraphs  9,  10:  The  heroic  man  gives  no  attention  to 
trifles;  he  concentrates  on  the  essential. 

May  one  make  plainness  of  dress  and  living  as  burden 
some  as  extravagance?  What  does  the  quotation  from  Eliot 
illustrate?  What  did  tlje  conduct  of  David  mean?  Why 
" better  still"? 

Paragraph  11:  The  heroic  man  is  cheerful. 

Illustrate  this  statement  from  your  observation  or  reading. 
Can  you  give  any  examples  that  contradict  it?  Is  the 


286         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

"martyr  air"  agreeable  or  becoming?  Is  it  affectation  to 
pretend  to  do  hard  tasks  easily?  Does  a  heroic  soldier  ever 
feel  afraid? 

Paragraph  12:  The  heroic  appeals  to  us  in  proportion  as 
we  are  capable  of  becoming  heroic. 

Do  you  ever  feel  that  "all  virtue  is  the  past's"?  Think 
over  the  environment  in  which  the  ordinary  person  is  placed, 
and  mention  opportunities  for  the- sort  of  heroism  Emerson 
means.  Do  you  know  any  examples  of  men  who  have  lived 
heroically  in  sordid  surroundings?  '  . 

Paragraph  13 :  Intellectual  promise  and  ambition  produce 
nothing  without  heroic  determination  and  independence. 

What  quality  is  more  necessary  than  mere  intellect  for  a 
leader  of  men?  What  "new  and  unattempted  problem" 
has  each  person  to  solve?  In  what  good  sense  does  Emerson 
use  the  words  "decided,"  "proud,"  "careless,"  "wilful," 
" lofty"?  Are  they  generally  used  in  a  complimentary  sense? 

Paragraph  14 :  The  heroic  man  is  persistent  and  consistent. 

Is  Emerson  advising  you  to  stick  to  your  determination 
even  when  you  know  you  are  mistaken?  Or  to  be  peculiar 
for  the  sake  of  being  peculiar?  Is  there  any  virtue  in  doing 
things  simply  because  we  are  afraid  to,  or  because  they  are 
unpleasant  to  us?  An  aunt  of  Emerson's  used  to  say  to  him, 
"Always  do  what  you  are  afraid  to  do." 

Paragraph  15:  A  heroic  man  accepts  even  his  own  blunders 
philosophically. 

Should  we  care  nothing  for  the  impression  we  make  on 
others?  Is  our  vanity  responsible  for  our  discomfort  when 
we  are  conscious  that  we  have  made  a  poor  appearance?  Is 
it  a  good  thing  to  cultivate  "sensitiveness"? 

The  last  sentence  suggests  that  we  refrain  from  doing  those 
things  that  we  find  disagreeable  in  other  persons. 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  287 

Paragraph  16:  Heroism  requires  us  to  face  the  disagreeable 
circumstances  of  life. 

Where  in  this  essay  have  you  already  found  this  doctrine 
stated  and  illustrated?  Give  names  of  heroes  who  illustrate 
Emerson's  last  sentence  in  this  paragraph. 

Paragraphs  17-19:  There  is  opportunity  to  cultivate  her 
oism  in  every-day  life. 

This  essay  was  published  in  1841.  What  opportunity  had 
an  American  then  to  be  heroic?  What  opportunity  has  he 
now?  Do  you  read  of  any  heroes  in  the  daily  papers?  Do 
you  think  that  the  past  offered  greater  opportunities  than 
the  present  offers? 

Write  a  short  paper  on  A  Hero  or  A  Heroine.  You  may  choose  a 
historical  character  whom  you  admire,  or  a  person  from  your  own 
acquaintance,  or  you  may  sketch  an  ideal  character  for  some  field 
of  activity  in  your  own  generation.  But  discuss  the  character  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  prominent  the  heroic  qualities. 

CHARACTER 

Paragraph  1:  Character  defined. 

Find  the  sentence  in  which  Emerson  defines  character;  ex 
plain  what  he  means  by  "  directly,"  "  without  means."  Have 
you  called  this  force  by  some  other  name  than  character? 
Have  you  ever  met  persons  that  were  greater  than  their 
words  or  works?  Socrates  and  Joan  of  Arc  claimed  to  be 
guided  by  a  "familiar,"  or  ''genius,"  or  spirit.  Give  examples 
of  your  own  to  show  the  difference  that  existed  between 
Hercules  and  Theseus. 

Paragraph  2:  Character  is  needed  in  the  political  world. 

Give  examples  of  men  in  the  political  world  who  have 
"character;"  examples  of  those  who  have  it  not.  What  do 


288         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

you  imagine  a  man  of  character  doing  in  office?    How  does 
the  country  feel  toward  such  men? 

Paragraph  3:  Character  counts  in  the  commercial  world. 

What  more  than  honesty  is  intended  here?  Think  over 
the  list  of  " Captains  of  Industry":  do  they  seem  to  you 
"born  to  succeed"? 

Paragraph  4 :  A  man  of  character  masters  other  men. 

Illustrate  this  statement  by  examples  from  your  reading 
or  observation. 

Paragraph  5 :  Truth  is  the  basis  of  character. 

What  is  meant  here  by  " Truth"?  Compare  Heroism, 
paragraph  13.  Have  you  found  truth  and  justice  as  powerful 
among  men  as  Emerson  says  they  are? 

Paragraph  6:  Character  makes  a  man  independent  of 
externals  —  of  circumstances,  environment,  fear,  etc. 

Does  the  fact  stated  in  the  first  sentence  naturally  follow 
that  discussed  in  paragraph  5?  Try  yourself  by  the  tests 
Emerson  mentions  in  this  paragraph;  do  you  meet  them 
all? 

Paragraph  7:  A  man  of  character  is  a  non-conformist. 

Is  this  discussion  a  natural  consequence  of  that  in  para 
graph  6?  Observe  "is"  in  the  second  sentence.  Is  Emerson 
in  this  paragraph  advising  us  to  be  peculiar,  or  rude? 

Paragraphs  8,  9 :  What  we  can  do  depends,  not  on  our  am 
bition,  but  on  what  we  are. 

Emerson  illustrates  this  statement  from  his  reading  and 
observation.  Add  illustrations  from  your  experience. 

Paragraph  10:  A  man  of  character  grows. 

Do  you  observe  growth  in  the  persons  of  forcible  personal 
ity  whom  you  know?  Could  you  be  greatly  impressed  by  one 
who  did  not  seem  to  you  to  have  a  "controlling  future"? 
Can  a  person  who  wishes  to  be  strong  afford  to  cherish  ill- 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  289 

will?  To  explain  to  other  persons  all  the  springs  of  his  action? 
Illustrate  or  give  reasons  for  your  answers. 

Paragraph  1 1 :  The  man  himself  is  greater  than  his  benevo 
lences. 

What  sentences  in  this  paragraph  state  the  moral  that 
Lowell's  Sir  Launfal  teaches?  Why  is  approbation  dangerous 
for  us;  and  why  are  doubt  and  suspicion  wholesome? 

Paragraph  12:  Character  is  above  intellectual  power. 

Explain  the  metaphor  in  the  first  sentence.  Do  you  wonder 
that  Emerson  despaired  of  expressing  his  ideal  of  character? 
What  does  he  consider  the  inspiration  of  his  intellectual 
power? 

Paragraphs  13-16:  A  man  of  character  receives  his  gift 
from  Nature;  he  does  not  depend  on  the  praise  or  the  blame 
of  others. 

Compare  with  paragraphs  5,  6,  7  above.  Can  any  one  be 
absolutely  indifferent  to  public  opinion?  Ought  he  to  be? 
Give  examples  of  " divine"  men  in  the  world's  history;  of  fa 
mous  men  who  were  not  "divine."  Explain  clearly  the  point 
of  each  example  given  by  Emerson  in  paragraph  16.  At  the 
end  of  paragraph  16  he  says  that  we  cannot  "go  abroad" 
without  feeling  the  influence  of  such  men.  Can  you  give  ex 
amples  from  your  experience? 

Paragraphs  17-21:  Men  of  character  are  drawn  to  one 
another. 

Illustrate  from  history  and  observation.  See  also  Friend 
ship,  paragraph  5.  To  what  person  does  the  last  half  of  para 
graph  20  refer  particularly  —  what  "youth  that  owed  nothing 
to  fortune"?  Has  the  life  of  every  great  man  been,  in  a 
measure,  the  life,  self-sacrifice,  and  death  of  this  one?  Would 
Emerson  judge  a  person  as  having  or  not  having  character 
partly  by  his  attitude  toward  such  "gods  and  saints"  — 


290         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

by  his  ability  to  recognize  their  greatness?    See  paragraphs  18 
and  21.    And  see  Lowell's  The  Present  Crisis. 

MANNERS 

Paragraph  1:  Introductory:  Manners  and  customs  differ 
among  different  nations. 

Explain  the  illustrations  of  Emerson,  and  add  others  of 
your  own. 

Paragraph  2:  The  gentleman  is  the  product  of  modern  civi 
lization. 

What  does  Emerson  mean  by  " gentleman"  here?  Is  your 
notion  exactly  like  his?  Do  not  think  of  gentle  in  this  word 
as  meaning  what  our  adjective  gentle  means  now.  The  "gen 
tles"  were  the  nobles,  and  the  "commons"  were  the  lower 
class.  Why  should  the  manners  of  the  "gentles"  come  to  be 
our  ideal  manners?  What  does  the  phrase  noblesse  oblige 
mean?  Why  should  words  originally  referring  to  the  "com 
mons"  (as  vulgar,  villain,  knave)  have  taken  on  a  bad 
moral  significance? 

Paragraph  3:  Some  qualities  of  Emerson's  ideal  "gentle 
man"  are  named  here. 

What  are  these  qualities?  Why  does  not  Emerson  like  the 
words  we  have  to  express  the  summary  of  these  qualities? 
Show  that  "politics  and  trade"  have  with  us  taken  the  place 
of  war.  Does  this  change  in  social  conditions  require  change 
in  the  character  of  the  gentleman?  Compare  the  mediaeval 
knight  with  the  modern  gentleman  in  respect  to  qualities 
named  in  this  paragraph.  "The  young  soldier  took  his 
oath  of  chivalry;  he  solemnly  swore  to  defend  the  church, 
to  attack  the  wicked,  to  respect  the  priesthood,  to  protect 
women  and  the  poor,  to  preserve  the  country  in  tran- 
quility,  and  to  shed  his  blood,  even  to  the  last  drop,  in 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  291 

behalf  of  his  brethren."  —  (Mill:  The  History  of  Chivalry.) 
If  any  of  these  vows  are  obsolete  in  their  mediaeval  form, 
do  they  stand  for  universal  principles  that  you  can  state 
in  a  modern  form?  For  example,  the  vow  to  defend  the 
church.  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  church?  Is  it  a  gentle 
man's  duty  to  defend  all  institutions  that  do  the  work  the 
church  professed  to  do  in  the  Middle  Ages?  What  was  "  per 
sonal  force"  called  in  the  last  essay  you  read? 

Paragraph  4:  Strength,  courage,  and  independence  are 
qualities  of  a  gentleman. 

Discuss  Emerson's  examples.  Add  examples  from  your 
own  knowledge.  Can  you  think  of  any  that  seem  to  contra 
dict  his  statement?  Do  you  think  these  three  qualities  are 
necessary  to  a  gentleman?  Does  Emerson  make  too  much 
of  " personal  force"? 

Paragraph  5:  Wealth  is  not  necessary  to  a  gentleman. 

Would  wealth  be  an  advantage  or  a  hindrance  to  him? 
Give  as  many  ways  as  you  can  think  of  in  which  it  would 
help  or  hinder  him  before  you  balance  your  account  for  your 
answer.  Is  it  true  that  a  wealthy  person  and  a  poor  person 
cannot  be  friends? 

Paragraph  6:  Manners  are  the  product  of  society. 

Memorize  the  third  and  fourth  sentences  of  this  paragraph. 
State  clearly,  then,  how  certain  forms  come  to  be  regarded 
as  "good  manners."  Does  Emerson  understand  truly  how 
persons  of  inferior  manners  feel  in  the  presence  of  persons 
of  better  breeding?  What  is  the  value  of  manners  in 
society? 

Paragraph  7:  Strong  men  admire  and  imitate  polished  men. 

State  clearly  Emerson's  theory  of  this  relation  in  a  family 
of  three  generations.  Which  generation  contains  the  "gen 
tleman"?  Which  the  mere  "  man  of  fashion"?  Do  you,  from 


292         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

your  own  observations,  reach  the  same  conclusion?  How 
necessary  to  the  gentleman,  then,  are  formal  manners? 

Paragraph  8:  Gentle  manners  are  irresistible,  and  make 
men  leaders. 

Illustrate  from  your  own  experience.  Do  you  observe  this 
fraternity  among  persons  of  the  same  manners?  Is  it  the 
same  as  "class  prejudice" — aristocratic  snobbery? 

Paragraphs  9-1 1 :  Good  manners  are  natural  and  sincere, 
not  artificial. 

Do  you  notice  in  persons  "accustomed  to  good  society" 
the  naturalness  and  independence  of  forms  mentioned  by 
Emerson?  Have  you  ever  seen  or  read  of  such  dignity  in  a 
humble  person  suddenly  introduced  into  formal  society? 
What  is  objectionable  in  a  "parvenu"  —ignorance  or  pre 
tension?  What  does  Emerson  call  a  man  who  places  all  stress 
on  forms?  How  does  Emerson  show  that  self-reliance  is 
necessary  to  real  dignity?  That  truth  is  also  necessary? 
Can  you  give  other  examples? 

Paragraphs  12, 13 :  Self-respect  and  deference  are  necessary 
to  good  manners. 

Illustrate  paragraph  12  from  customs  of  our  times.  In  con 
nection  with  paragraph  13  discuss  the  old  sayings,  "Famil 
iarity  breeds  contempt"  —  "No  man  can  be  a  hero  to  his 
valet."  In  what  words  does  Emerson  express  the  thought 
that  "Stillness  of  person  and  steadiness  of  features  are  signal 
marks  of  good  breeding  "?  Does  Emerson  deprecate  thought 
ful  care  for  the  comfort  of  others? 

Paragraph  14:  Wit  is  necessary  to  determine  what  man 
ners  are  suitable  to  circumstances. 

Notice  the  summary  under  the  words  "kindness"  and  "in 
dependence  "  of  qualities  of  good  breeding  already  discussed. 
What  does  Emerson  say  "makes  the  good  and  bad  of  man- 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  293 

ners  "?  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  a  person  "  is  all  angles 
and  sharp  corners"?  Does  such  a  person  get  on  happily  with 
others?  Can  a  person  who  wants  tact  appear  kind  however 
kindly  he  may  feel? 

Paragraph  15:  The  gentleman  is  not  too  strenuous. 

Illustrate  with  examples.  "Haste  can  make  you  slip-shod, 
but  it  can  never  make  you  graceful."  —  Higginson. 

Paragraph  16:  The  gentleman  is  "  good-natured." 

How  does  this  quality  differ  from  that  discussed  in  para 
graph  14?  Illustrate  its  value  from  your  own  observation. 

Paragraphs  17,  18:  The  basis  of  good  manners  is  benev 
olence. 

If  one  has  only  external  manners,  is  he  likely  to  betray 
sometime  his  cold  heart?  If  he  is  kind-hearted  and  thought 
ful,  will  he  be  likely  to  commit  any  serious  blunders  in  his  so 
cial  relations?  Nevertheless,  have  rules  and  forms  of  conduct 
a  certain  value?  Are  they  ever  burdensome  or  absurd?  Can 
you  think  of  any  rules  of  conduct  that  are  not  intended  to 
make  us  more  agreeable  to  each  other,  or  to  express  the 
benevolence  we  ought,  at  least,  to  feel?  Do  you  think  of  rules 
of  etiquette  as  "an  attempt  to  organize  beauty  of  behavior"? 

Paragraph  19:  Fine  manners  do  not  belong  to  any  one 
class  of  society. 

Discuss  the  relation  of  manners  to  character.  Which  is 
better,  physical  beauty  or  "beauty  of  manners"?  Have  you 
ever  seen  a  person  that  impressed  you  as  the  one  Emerson 
speaks  of  ("I  have  seen"  etc.)  impressed  him? 

Paragraph  20 :  Women  have  a  special  instinct  for  manners. 

Discuss  and  illustrate  the  doctrines  of  this  paragraph. 
With  Emerson's  quotation  compare  Wordsworth's  She  was  a 
phantom  of  delight.  Name  some  women  who  have  been  to 
the  social  life  of  their  time  what  Emerson  describes,  as 


294         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Madame  de  Stae'l.  Study  thoughtfully  the  account  of  Lilla. 
Understand  every  characteristic  named  by  Emerson.  Is  this 
a  concrete  summary  of  the  essay  on  Manners? 

Paragraph  21 :  To  persons  who  have  them  not,  forms  seem 
to  be  more  than  they  really  are. 

What  two  virtues  will  take  one  safely  into  every  society? 
Are  forms  current  everywhere?  Are  the  same  forms  current 
everywhere? 

Paragraphs  22,  23:  After  all,  it  is  benevolence  that  gives 
one  currency  in  society.  Conventionalities,  though  some 
times  useful,  are  not  essential. 

Explain  the  meaning  of  the  fable. 

Read  thoughtfully  Emerson's  essay  on  Behavior.  Make  a  list  of 
the  thoughts  identical  in  the  two  essays.  Make  a  list  of  the  thoughts 
you  find  in  Behavior  which  you  did  not  find  in  the  essay  on  Manners. 
Memorize  and  recite  in  the  class  at  least  one  fine  passage,  worth 
remembering  all  your  life.  Bring  into  the  class  at  least  two  passages 
which  you  would  like  to  contradict,  discuss,  or  illustrate  by  ex 
amples. 

Outline  of  Topics  Treated  in  Behavior 

Definition  of  Manners. 

They  are  partly  formal. 

Influence  of  manners  in  society. 

The  primary  use  of  good  manners. 

Influence  of  environment  and  position  on  manners. 

Relation  between  power  and  manners. 

Influence  of  birth  on  manners. 

Expressiveness  of  the  body. 

Manners  of  royal  persons. 

Importance  of  manners  in  business. 

Importance  of  manners  in  society. 

Independence  of  manners  desirable. 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  295 

Manners  and  haste  incompatible. 

Character  shows  itself  in  spite  of  manners. 

Manners  impressive  only  as  they  show  personality. 

Value  of  novels  in  teaching  manners. 

Heroic  manners  win  confidence. 

Manners  more  potent  than  beauty. 

Relation  between  benevolence  and  manners. 

It  is  ill-mannered  to  talk  about  unpleasant  subjects. 

Manners  to  be  taught  by  principles,  not  by  specific  rules. 

Write  a  paragraph  on  the  relation  between  good  manners  and 
formal  manners.  Are  they  necessarily  the  same?  Are  they  ever 
opposed?  Cite  rules  of  form  not  absolutely  necessary  to  good  man 
ners;  cite  other  rules  that  are  necessary.  What  is  the  principle  on 
which  you  have  decided  whether  or  not  the  rule  is  essential?  See 
the  first  sentence  in  paragraph  6  of  Behavior. 

COMPENSATION 

Paragraphs  1-6:  Introduction:  How  long  had  Emerson 
been  planning  this  essay?  Why  did  he  wish  to  write  on  this 
subject?  What  was  the  doctrine  set  forth  by  the  sermon  that 
occasioned  the  writing  of  the  essay?  Is  it  commonly  held? 
What  is  Emerson's  criticism  of  it  as  moral  teaching?  Is  it  a 
doctrine  to  live  by? 

Paragraphs  7-9 :  Compensation,  or  balance,  is  a  law  of  the 
natural  world. 

Can  you  add  examples? 

Paragraphs  10-12:  In  human  life  and  society,  every  gain 
is  accompanied  by  a  loss,  every  loss  by  a  compensating  gain. 

How  many  times  does  Emerson  state  this  truth  in  an  ex 
pository  sentence?  In  what  figures  does  he  express  it?  With 
what  examples  does  he  illustrate  it?  Add  other  examples. 
Explain  the  third  sentence  in  paragraph  11.  With  paragraph 


296         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

11  compare  Bacon's  essay  Of  Great  Place,  and  these  lines 
from  Lowell's  Sir  Launfal,  Prelude  I: — 

At  the  devil's  booth  are  all  things  sold, 
Each  ounce  of  dross  costs  its  ounce  of  gold; 
For  a  cap  and  bells  our  lives  we  pay, 
Bubbles  we  buy  with  the  whole  soul's  tasking. 

Paragraphs  13-14:  Natural  laws  are  universal  in  opera 
tion. 

Find  all  the  sentences  that  express  this  thought.  What 
examples  are  given  to  prove  and  illustrate  it? 

Paragraphs  15-16:  The  law  of  compensation  is  also  uni 
versal  and  eternal  in  its  operation. 

Explain  the  third  sentence  of  paragraph  15.  How  does 
Emerson  prove  that  "  Justice  is  not  postponed"  till  the  next 
world?  Explain  the  quotation  from  the  Greek.  How  does 
Emerson  regard  punishment  for  sin?  Explain  carefully  the 
figure  in  the  last  three  sentences  of  paragraph  16. 

Paragraph  17:  Men  fail  to  see  that,  in  a  well-conducted 
universe,  the  moral  must  balance  the  physical. 

Add  to  Emerson's  examples. 

Paragraph  18 :  Men  constantly  strive  for  the  gain  without 
the  loss. 

Illustrate  by  examples. 

Paragraphs  19,  20:  But  the  law  of  compensation  operates 
in  spite  of  us. 

Explain  the  figures  and  illustrations  with  which  Emerson 
makes  his  statement  more  forcible.  Explain  the  second  and 
third  sentences  of  paragraph  20. 

Paragraphs  21-23:  The  fables  of  the  race  teach  the  law  of 
compensation. 

Tell,  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  clearly  his  moral,  the 


RALPH   WALDO  EMERSON  297 

stories  to  which  Emerson  alludes.  What  is  meant  by  the 
third  sentence  in  paragraph  21?  Explain  the  figures  in  the 
last  sentence  in  paragraph  21.  With  the  first  sentence  of 
paragraph  23  compare  Lowell's  prelude  to  his  Rhcecus.  What 
does  an  artist  gain  by  choosing  an  old  story  for  his  subject? 
Name  some  poets  that  have  done  this.  Name  some  poems 
that  are  more  the  product  of  the  race  than  of  any  indi 
vidual. 

Paragraphs  24-26:  The  proverbs  of  all  nations  teach  the 
law  of  compensation. 

Proverbs  grow  out  of  the  experience  of  the  race,  and  are 
therefore  intended  to  express  truths.  Do  you  understand  the 
significance  in  this  essay  of  each  of  those  quoted  in  paragraph 
25?  Emerson  probably  expected  us  to  think  for  ourselves  of 
such  familiar  ones  as,  "  There  is  no  loss  without  some  gain/' 
"You  can't  eat  your  cake  and  have  it  too,"  and  "There  are 
two  sides  to  every  question."  Can  you  make  the  list  still 
longer? 

Paragraph  27:  Find  the  topic  sentence  of  this  paragraph. 
How  many  times  is  it  repeated.  Does  each  repetition  make  it 
clearer?  More  forcible?  Explain  the  metaphors  in  the  last 
two  sentences. 

Paragraph  28:  Find  the  topic  sentence  of  this  paragraph. 
How  does  Emerson  illustrate  this  truth?  Find  illustrations 
of  it  in  your  own  life  and  in  the  society  about  you. 

Paragraphs  29-30:  Failure  to  live  up  to  one's  social  obliga 
tions  re-acts  on  the  delinquent  person. 

Why  do  men  feel  afraid  of  those  they  have  injured?  Is 
fear  as  terrible  a  sign  as  the  figure  in  paragraph  30  indicates? 
Discuss  historically  the  statement  that  it  is  "the  herald  of  all 
revolutions."  If  the  ruling  class  were  always  just  and  fair, 
would  there  ever  be  any  revolutions? 


298         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Paragraph  31:  Superstitious  fears  come  from  a  sense  of 
our  un  worthiness. 

Explain  the  examples  used  by  Emerson. 

Paragraphs  32,  33 :  We  are  obliged,  willing  or  unwilling,  to 
pay  our  debt  to  society. 

Explain  the  second  sentence  in  paragraph  32.  Is  the  sense 
of  obligation  as  painful  as  Emerson  says  it  is?  Should  it  be? 
Should  not  one  be  able  to  receive  gratefully  as  well  as  to  give 
generously?  Could  a  poor  person  ever  associate  with  a  rich 
one  and  live  up  to  this  doctrine?  Or  is  Emerson  merely 
speaking  against  the  selfish  policy  of  "getting  all  one  can" 
out  of  other  people  and  out  of  society,  without  any  thought 
of  one's  privilege  of  sharing  in  the  pleasure  of  giving?  With 
the  third  sentence  from  the  last  in  paragraph  33  compare  the 
notion  of  "  passing  on  a  kindness  to  some  one  else,"  when 
one  can  make  no  return  to  his  benefactor. 

Paragraphs  34,  35:  The  law  of  compensation  rules  in  the 
industrial  world. 

Give  examples  to  show  that  cheap  labor  is  dear.  Did  you 
ever  buy  a  cheap  article  that  proved  to  be  dear?  Would 
sweat-shop  garments,  made  in  filthy  attics  by  diseased  per 
sons,  be  cheap  at  any  price?  What  moral  price  does  a  swin 
dler  pay  for  his  dishonest  gains?  If  the  workman  does  not 
receive  a  fair  price  for  his  wares,  what  is  his  compensa 
tion? 

Paragraph  36 :  Crime  cannot  hide  itself. 

Explain  all  the  figures  in  this  paragraph.  Does  the  expe 
rience  of  society  justify  the  old  saying  "Murder  will  out"? 

Paragraph  37:  Goodness  re-acts  upon  the  actor. 

Discuss  the  quotation,  "Indeed,  to  do  the  best  for  others  is 
finally  to  do  the  best  for  ourselves;  but  it  will  not  do  to  have 
our  eyes  fixed  on  that  issue."  —  Ruskin. 


RALPH   WALDO  EMERSON  299 

Paragraph  38:  Even  a  man's  faults  have  their  compen 
sating  advantages. 

Study  the  paragraph  carefully,  and  explain  how  Emerson 
proves  this.  Add  to  his  examples  from  your  own  experience 
or  observation.  What  compensation  for  a  quick  temper  has 
a  quick  person  usually  in  his  disposition?  What  compensa 
tion  has  a  conceited  person  usually?  A  slow  person? 

Paragraph  39 :  Every  affliction  and  hindrance  and  tempta 
tion  has  its  compensation. 

Give  a  concrete  example  for  each  instance  named  by  Emer 
son.  Do  you  feel  that  prosperity  is  as  dangerous  as  he  says 
it  is?  Which  would  you  rather  have,  the  discomforts  with 
their  compensations  or  the  ease  with  its  compensations? 
Memorize  the  last  two  sentences. 

Paragraph  40:  No  one  can  really  injure  a  man  but  himself. 

In  what  sense  is  no  other  person  able  to  cheat  us?  Who  is 
"the  third  silent  party"?  See  the  next  sentence.  Do  you 
believe  what  is  said  in  the  last  two  sentences? 

Paragraph  41:  There  is  compensation  for  martyrs,  victims 
of  all  sorts  of  persecutions. 

Review  the  history  of  persecution:  does  Emerson  paint  it 
in  colors  too  dark?  Do  any  of  his  remarks  refer  to  conditions 
in  America  in  1841?  Have  martyrs  usually  suffered  cheer 
fully?  Can  you  imagine  what  compensations  have  sustained 
their  spirits  in  the  hour  of  agony?  Have  they  usually  had 
faith  that  their  cause  would  triumph  in  the  end?  Does  it? 
See  Lowell's  The  Present  Crisis,  stanza  14.  Explain  the  first 
sentence.  Is  the  progress  of  the  race  natural  and  inevi 
table? 

Paragraph  42 :  A  transitional  paragraph, 

a.  Summarizing  the  doctrine  of  compensa 
tion; 


300         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

b.  Introducing  the  discussion  intended  to 
show  that  good  and  evil  are  not  equal  in 
effect. 

Would  the  discussion  of  the  first  41  paragraphs  influence 
you  to  think  that  it  would  make  no  difference  whether  one 
should  do  good  or  evil,  that  the  balance  of  his  life  would  be 
the  same  in  either  case?  If  that  were  Emerson's  doctrine, 
would  the  essay  have  a  good  moral  influence?  Would  it  be 
true  to  the  constitution  of  the  universe? 

Paragraph  43:  Good  is  positive,  active,  really  existent; 
evil  is  negative,  non-existent. 

Emerson  suggests  an  analogy  between  good  and  light,  and 
between  evil  and  darkness,  or  absence  of  light.  Browning  uses 
another  figure  to  express  the  same  negative  character  of 
evil. 

The  evil  is  null,  is  naught,  is  silence  implying  sound. 

—  BROWNING:  Abt  Vogler. 

Paragraph  44:  The  compensation  for  evil  that  apparently 
goes  unpunished  is  in  the  character  of  the  individual. 

Do  you  feel  that  this  punishment  is  adequate  for  any 
crime? 

Paragraphs  45,  46:  There  is  no  moral  penalty  attached  to  a 
virtuous  action;  and  its  great  reward  is  in  its  effect  on  char 
acter. 

Discuss  the  proverb  "  Virtue  is  its  own  reward."  Does 
Emerson  seem  to  think  that  a  man  is  living  out  his  natural 
self  in  living  his  best  self?  Compare  Hawthorne's  tale  called 
Drowne's  Wooden  Image:  "Yet,  who  can  doubt  that  the 
very  highest  state  to  which  a  human  spirit  can  attain, 
in  its  loftiest  aspirations,  is  its  truest  and  most  natural 
state." 


RALPH   WALDO  EMERSON  301 

t 

With  this  paragraph  compare  Lowell's: 

'Tis  Heaven  alone  that  is  given  away, 
'Tis  only  God  may  be  had  for  the  asking. 

—  Sir  Launfal,  Prelude  to  Part  I. 

Can  one  train  himself  to  care  more  for  this  moral  reward 
than  for  material  rewards?  How  much  is  it  worth  to  know 
that  we  are  in  harmony  with  the  constitution  of  the  universe, 
and  with  the  laws  of  its  progress? 

Paragraph  47 :  Circumstances  are  comparatively  unimpor 
tant  to  one  whose  mind  is  fixed  on  the  soul's  development. 

Are  all  men  created  equal?  How  can  a  person  that  has 
little  learn  not  to  envy  one  who  has  much?  Explain  the  third 
and  fourth  sentences  from  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

Paragraphs  48-50:  Calamities  develop  character. 

Illustrate  this  statement  by  specific  examples :  what  could 
a  rich  man  gain  by  losing  his  money?  what  may  the  loss  of 
friends  do  for  us?  what  may  physical  suffering  teach  us? 
Compare  the  figure  in  the  third  sentence  in  paragraph  48 
with  Holmes's  The  Chambered  Nautilus.  Does  the  fourth 
sentence  in  paragraph  48  mean  that  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate 
indifference  to  persons  and  surroundings?  Make  sure  you 
understand  the  beautiful  figure  in  paragraph  49.  Have  you 
ever  observed  in  life  the  truth  expressed  in  paragraph  50? 
Notice  the  beautiful  and  significant  figure  that  closes  the 
essay. 

How  much  of  the  compensation  for  misfortune  comes  in 
the  way  of  character-discipline?  What  would  this  essay 
mean  to  a  person  not  seriously  interested  in  the  improvement 
of  his  character? 

Would  this  essay  influence  you  at  all  to  decide  your  actions 
on  motives  based  on  the  expectation  of  rewards  and  punish- 


302         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

ments?  Are  such  motives  high  or  low?  To  what  extent  do 
they  come  into  your  school-life  now?  Into  other  phases  of 
your  life? 

Write  a  paragraph  summarizing  Emerson's  doctrine  of  compensation. 
Write  another  stating  your  own  point  of  view. 

SELF-RELIANCE 

Paragraph  1 :  Every  man  has  the  thoughts  and  feelings  the 
great  artist  expresses. 

Is  it  your  experience  that  you  recognize  your  own  thought 
often  in  the  expressions  of  great  men?  Can  you  explain  why 
this  should  be  so?  Do  you  care  much  for  a  piece  of  art  or 
literature  that  does  not  express  your  observation  or  expe 
rience?  Of  course,  you  may  not  have  put  your  thought  into 
words,  but  you  recognize  your  subconscious  thought  in  the 
picture  or  the  poem.  Why  do  you  sometimes  find  yourself 
interested  in  a  book  to  which  you  were  indifferent  a  year  or 
two  before?  What  is  Emerson's  definition  of  " genius"? 
What  is  the  fundamental  difference  between  it  and  that  given 
by  the  great  critic,  Matthew  Arnold:  "Genius  is  mainly  an 
affair  of  energy"?  Or  that  given  by  the  painter,  Hogarth: 
"Genius  is  nothing  but  labor  and  diligence"?  Or  that  given 
by  the  scientist,  Buff  on:  "Genius  is  nothing  but  a  great 
capacity  for  patience"?  Can  you  see  why  a  scientist  should 
give  Buffon's  definition,  or  an  artist  give  Hogarth's? 

Paragraphs  2,  3 :  Every  man  is  of  unique  importance  in  the 
world. 

Explain  the  first  sentence  in  paragraph  2.  Compare  your 
self  with  others  whom  you  know  well;  do  you  find  yourself 
exactly  like  them?  Or  could  you,  if  you  would,  do  something 
for  society  that  no  other  person  could  do?  Compare  Heroism, 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  303 

paragraph  13.  Is  the  feeling  described  in  paragraph  3  the 
same  as  conceit? 

Paragraphs  4,  5 :  Independence  is  natural  to  man. 

Emerson  proves  his  assertion  by  describing  the  behavior  of 
children,  and  contrasting  it  with  that  of  grown  persons.  Does 
your  observation  of  the  world  tally  with  his?  Do  you  think 
that  young  persons  who  behave  as  he  describes  are  un 
pleasantly  bold? 

Paragraph  6:  Society  demands  conformity,  not  independ 
ence. 

But  self-reliance  is  a  centrifugal  force;  if  society  is  to  be 
held  together,  must  it  not  be  by  a  centripetal  force,  like  con 
formity?  Is  it  possible  to  live  so  detached  a  life  in  the  world? 

Paragraph  7:  The  true  man  judges  everything  from  his 
own  point  of  view. 

What  sort  of  man  should  you  take  Emerson  to  be  from 
what  he  says  in  this  paragraph?  What  sort  of  man  was  he  in 
his  dealings  with  others?  Have  you  seen  such  philanthropists 
as  he  describes?  Ought  you  to  be  prejudiced  against  a  good 
cause  by  their  failings?  Does  Emerson  mean  that  we  are 
never  to  take  advice?  How  significant,  as  a  limitation  to 
this  extreme  statement,  is  the  clause  "when  my  genius  calls 
me"?  Is  it  manly  to  give  to  a  cause  in  which  we  have  no 
interest,  simply  because  we  are  asked  to  do  so? 

Paragraph  8:  A  man  ought  not  even  to  do  good  from  a 
lower  motive. 

Have  you  ever  done  a  good  deed  to  atone  for  a  bad  one? 
Or  "  to  be  seen  of  men  "?  Are  such  motives  high? 

Paragraph  9:  One  must  "live  his  own  life." 

But  should  one  be  absolutely  indifferent  to  the  opinion  of 
others?  Have  you  experienced  the  truth  of  the  third  sen 
tence?  Why  is  it  impossible  for  another  person  to  understand 


304         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

your  duty  as  correctly  as  you  do?  Can  another  person  choose 
your  profession  for  you?  Memorize  the  last  sentence.  Name 
some  such  "great"  man. 

Paragraph  10:  Insincere  conformity  is  bad. 

What  profession  did  Emerson  give  up  because  he  could 
not  sincerely  conform  to  its  usages?  What  is  the  harm  in 
such  conformity?  Explain  "one  or  another  handkerchief." 
Does  the  latter  part  of  the  paragraph  express  a  common 
experience? 

Paragraph  11:  Non-conformists  must  brook  the  rage  of 
society. 

Compare  with  paragraph  6.  Why  is  the  disapproval  of  the 
cultivated  classes  so  much  less  fearful  than  that  of  the 
ignorant?  In  our  own  small  circle  of  society  are  we  more 
critical  of  those  that  do  not  conform  in  small  matters  or  of 
those  that  disregard  great  principles? 

Paragraphs  12-14:  We  are  afraid  of  being  inconsistent 
if  we  are  independent. 

The  first  terror  is  that  explained  in  paragraph  11.  Try  to 
state  clearly  the  difference  between  a  stubborn  consistency 
and  a  reasonable  consistency;  between  a  reasonable  con 
sistency  and  fickleness.  You  will  make  your  statements 
clearer  if  you  illustrate  them  by  examples.  What  value 
do  you  give  to  the  saying  "Consistency,  thou  art  .a  jewel"? 
Is  the  last  sentence  of  paragraph  14  true?  Is  the  great  man 
ahead  of  his  times?  See  Lowell,  The  Present  Crisis.  In 
how  far  is  consistency  in  social  institutions  opposed  to  social 
progress? 

Paragraphs  15,  16:  A  man  should  live  out  his  own  nature, 
honestly,  day  by  day,  and  he  will  be,  on  the  whole,  consistent. 

Explain  the  second  sentence  in  paragraph  15;  the  fourth; 
the  last  two.  Explain  the  figure  in  paragraph  16  comparing 


RALPH   WALDO  EMERSON  305 

life  to  the  path  of  a  ship.  Emerson  is  not  in  this  paragraph 
advising  us  to  be  shortsighted,  but  to  do  every  moment  what 
seems  right  and  best  in  the  light  we  have  at  that  moment  — 
not  in  the  light  we  had  yesterday.  Explain  the  doctrine  of 
"the  cumulative  force  of  character." 

Paragraphs  17-20:  All  true  men  should  regard  themselves 
as  the  equals  of  " great  men." 

The  first  sentence  in  paragraph  17  puts  aside  the  two 
"terrors"  that  have  just  been  discussed.  With  sentences 
5  and  6  compare  the  preparations  made  in  Friendship,  para 
graph  3.  Is  it  wise  for  us  all  to  aspire  to  become  "centers" 
and  "causes"?  Is  one  likely  to  become  what  he  does  not 
aspire  to  be?  Emerson  advises  also,  "Hitch  your  wagon  to  a 
star."  If  every  man  has  in  him  the  elements  of  greatness, 
why  should  one  be  over-awed  by  a  famous  man?  Every  man 
may  have  the  dignity  of  a  prince,  in  character  and  in  self- 
respect. 

Paragraphs  21,  22:  Original,  creative  action  comes  from 
intuition,  which  proceeds  from  the  fountain  of  universal  life. 
A  man's  intuitions  are,  therefore,  always  to  be  trusted,  and 
what  he  knows  by  intuition  is  always  true.  In  matters  where 
the  intuitions  guide  us,  we  are  not  bound  to  listen  to  the 
teaching  of  other  men.  The  past  has  no  claim  upon  a  man. 

Paragraphs  23,  24:  We  are  too  much  bound  by  the  tradi 
tions  of  the  past. 

What  civilization  was  there  until  recently  in  China, 
where  men  have  said  for  centuries,  "  What  was  good  enough 
for  my  father  is  good  enough  for  me"?  Explain  the  last 
two  sentences  of  paragraph  23.  Principles  are  eternal,  but 
each  generation  has  its  own  way  of  expressing  them  (para 
graph  24).  This  we  saw  in  our  discussion  of  the  mediaeval 
knight  and  the  modern  gentleman,  in  connection  with  the 


306         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

essay  on  Manners  (paragraph  3).  What  lines  in  Lowell's 
The  Present  Crisis  express  the  thought  of  progress  Emerson 
has  put  into  this  essay? 

Paragraph  25 :  How  can  men  recognize  the  leading  of  this 
divine  intuition?  Are  example  and  experience  of  no  value? 
Does  it  lead  one  to  or  from  conformity?  Is  this  the  feeling 
that  is  higher  than  reason?  (See  Heroism,  paragraph  5). 

Paragraph  26:  There  is  life  only  in  progress. 

Memorize  the  first  sentence.  Have  you  ever  heard 
thoughtful  persons  say  that  one  cannot  stand  still  when  he 
is  going  up  the  hill  of  life  —  that  if  he  is  not  climbing  up 
ward  he  is  slipping  backward?  Notice  that  the  words  "plas 
tic"  and  " permeable"  in  the  last  sentence  imply  change, 
also. 

Paragraphs  27,  28:  The  power  of  self-help  is  necessary  to 
a  complete  existence. 

How  does  Emerson  show  this  by  examples  from  nature? 
Cite  some  examples  from  your  own  observation  of  nature, 
and  from  your  experience  of  life. 

Paragraphs  29-33:  No  man  must  permit  himself  to  be 
hindered  by  others  or  by  the  ideals  of  others. 

Does  Emerson  advise  you  to  become  a  hermit  and  abjure 
all  social  duties  and  responsibilities?  Or  simply  to  be  "in  the 
world  but  not  of  it"?  With  paragraph  30  compare  the  state 
ment  in  Heroism,  paragraph  13,  that  every  person  has  "a 
new  and  untried  problem"  to  solve.  He  cannot  work  it  out 
successfully  on  rules  that  apply  to  other  problems.  Does 
Emerson  condemn  under  the  terms  "lying  hospitality"  and 
"lying  affections"  those  courteous  expressions  by  which  we 
sometimes  try  to  disguise  an  indifference,  a  vexation,  or  a 
dislike  of  which  we  are  ashamed?  Should  we  always  "speak 
our  minds"  to  people?  Will  the  doctrine  of  one's  duty  to 


RALPH   WALDO  EMERSON  307 

oneself  lead  a  sane,  sincere  person  astray?  Have  you  ever 
known  unbalanced  persons  to  *harm  themselves  under  what 
they  supposed  to  be  an  application  of  this  principle?  Or  self- 
indulgent  persons  to  make  it  an  excuse  for  breaking  social 
laws?  Is  it  a  dangerous  principle?  How  can  we  be  certain 
we  are  not  self-indulgent  or  unbalanced  when  we  undertake 
to  be  independent  in  this  way?  Is  Emerson  too  pessimistic 
in  paragraph  33? 

Paragraph  34:  Self-reliance  is  necessary  in  business. 

Can  you  cite  examples  of  persons  who  have  failed  because 
they  had  not  patience  to  wait  for  success,  or  courage  to  wring 
it  from  failure?  In  the  lives  of  great  inventors  you  can 
find  plenty  of  examples  of  men  who  have  had  to  toil  patiently 
and  courageously  for  success  to  which  no  person  but  them 
selves  looked  forward  with  any  hope. 

Paragraph  35  is  transitional,  looking  forward  to  coming 
topics. 

Paragraphs  36-38 :  Self-reliance  should  be  practiced  in  re 
ligion. 

State  Emerson's  notion  of  what  prayers  are  right  and 
proper,  and  what  are  improper.  Compare  his  statement 
that  there  is  " prayer  in  all  actions"  with  Whittier's  Snow- 
Bound,  lines  608-611.  In  the  first  half  of  paragraph  37  is 
Emerson  unsympathetic  and  cold-hearted?  What  words  of 
Emerson  express  the  thought,  "To  him  that  hath  shall  be 
given"?  What  does  Emerson  think  of  the  value  of  formal 
creeds?  Of  the  harm  they  may  do?  Because  a  certain  creed 
satisfied  the  spiritual  need  of  Calvin  or  Wesley  or  John  Fox, 
does  it  necessarily  satisfy  the  need  of  other  men?  Does  his 
tory  show  that  men  usually  place  what  Emerson  would  call  a 
false  value  on  creeds?  Should  a  growing  mind  expect  to  cling 
to  one  creed  from  childhood  to  old  age?  Compare  paragraphs 


308         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

12  to  14.    Explain  the  metaphor  in  the  last  sentence  of  par 
agraph  38. 

Paragraphs  39^2:  We  need  to  be  more  self-reliant  in  con 
forming  to  educational  ideals. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
travel,  see  the  notes  on  Whittier's  The  Last  Walk  in  Autumn, 
lines  49ff.  What  great  pictures  have  you  seen  that  prove 
that  a  real  artist  may  take  his  subjects  from  the  life  about 
him,  however  humble  it  may  be?  What  great  poems  be 
sides  Snow-Bound  do  you  know  that  show  that  a  poet  may 
write  greatly  on  the  simple  life  he  knows  at  home? 

Paragraph  43 :  Men  must  be  self-reliant  in  the  choice  of  a 
life-work  or  profession. 

What  considerations  should  determine  every  young  person 
in  the  choice  of  a  profession  or  business?  Should  he  think 
chiefly  of  how  he  can  make  the  most  money?  Of  how  he  can 
rise  to  the  best  social  position?  Of  how  he  can  make  the  most 
for  himself  and  society  of  such  talents  as  he  has?  Who  is  to . 
make  the  choice?  If  parents  have  studied  the  characters  and 
dispositions  of  their  children  faithfully,  can  they  give  them 
material  help  in  choice  of  a  life-work? 

Paragraph  44  is  transitional;  refer  to  paragraph  35,  and 
to  the  coming  topic. 

Paragraphs  45^8:  We  need  to  be  self-reliant  in  our  modes 
of  living  —  in  our  social  relations. 

How  is  the  law  of  "  compensation "  shown  in  paragraphs 
45  and  46?  Is  it  true  that  society,  after  all  its  centuries  of 
struggle,  has  made  no  real  progress?  Are  all  our  boasted  com 
forts  and  conveniences  of  no  real  value?  What  harm  can 
there  be  in  " improving  machinery"?  And  have  we  no 
higher  moral  ideals  than  men  of  a  thousand  years  ago?  Is  it 
nothing  that  we  have  abolished  slavery  and  ceased  to  practice 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  309 

religious  persecution,  and  a  hundred  other  evils?  Explain 
the  metaphor  in  paragraph  48. 

Paragraph  49 :  Men  must  learn  to  be  independent  of  prop 
erty  and  of  the  support  of  other  men. 

Is  the  statement  made  in  the  third  sentence  correct?  Is 
this  a  loss  that  compensates  a  rich  man  for  the  advantages 
he  gains  through  his  wealth?  Is  a  real  man  content  to  be 
judged  by  what  he  has?  Ought  a  " self-made  man"  to  be 
judged  by  his  wealth  any  more  than  a  man  of  inherited 
means?  Is  there  no  advantage  in  numbers  —  in  belonging  to 
a  large  party,  or  society,  or  club?  To  what  extent  is  the  work 
of  society  carried  on  through  such  agencies?  Does  a  man  who 
belongs  to  such  an  organization  sacrifice  anything  of  his  own 
individuality? 

Paragraph  50:  Men  must  learn  to  be  independent  of  cir 
cumstances,  and  think  only  of  the  working  of  great  social  and 
spiritual  laws. 

Memorize  the  last  two  sentences. 

CULTURE 
I.  Read  the  essay  carefully  with  the  following  outline. 

A.  Introduction: 

I.  The  Purpose  of  Culture: 

To  develop  symmetrically  all  our  .powers.     Memorize  para 
graph  9. 

II.  Opposites  of  Culture: 

1.  Narrowness: 

a.  In  intellectual  matters; 

b.  In  social  relations. 

2.  Egotism,  manifested  by: 

a.  A  desire  to  be  noticed  and  admired; 

b.  An  exaggerated  opinion  of  our  own  importance. 


310         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

B.  Body:  There  are  four  sources  of  culture:  books,  travel,  society, 
solitude  (paragraph  11). 

I.  Books. 

1.  Advantages  of  formal,  school  education: 

a.  The  value  of  training  is  universally  acknowledged; 

b.  Education  should  not  be  reformatory  merely,  but  pre 

ventive; 

c.  Familiarity  with  great  books  prevents  one  from  becoming 

egotistic. 

2.  Books  are  not  the  only  instruments  of  education  —  games 

and  amusements  are  necessary: 

a.  They  broaden  one's  view  of  life; 

b.  If  practiced,  they  will  not  seem  to  be  too  important. 

II.  Travel. 

1.  Advantages  of  travel: 

a.  It  brings  broader  knowledge  of  world  and  people; 

b.  It  brings  one  into  contact  with  great  men; 

c.  It  furnishes  new  interests  and  resources. 

2.  Limitation  to  the  advantages  of  travel: 

a.  It  draws  away  power  that  should  be  used  at  home; 

b.  There  is  not  so  much  that  is  novel  in  foreign  lands  — 

men  are  men  the  world  over. 

III.  Society. 

1.  Advantages  of  society  (city  life): 

a.  It  brings  one  into  contact  with  things  and  persons  worth 

knowing; 

b.  It  teaches  quiet,  unpretentious  manners. 

2.  Limitations  in  society: 

a.  It  forces  trifles  on  our  attention; 

b.  It    brings   us    into   contact   with   persons    not  helpful 

to  us. 

IV.  Solitude. 

1.  Advantages  of  solitude  (country  life,  quiet  room,  etc.): 
a.  It  gives  one  opportunity  to  regain  poise  and  cultivate 
individuality; 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  311 

b.  It  releases  one  from  petty  cares,  and  gives  one  time  to 

see  life  in  its  proper  proportions; 

c.  It  gives  one  time  to  cultivate  some  artistic  taste; 

d.  It  gives  one  time  to  study  thoroughly  his  trade  or  pro 

fession. 

e.  Even  involuntary  solitude — social  ostracism  for  opinion 

or   principle,   for   non-conformity — is   good   discipline, 
and  cultivates  self-reliance. 

2.  Why  does  Emerson  name  no  losses  to  compensate  the  gains 
from  solitude?  Is  IV  1,  sufficiently  balanced  by  III  1? 
Does  the  absence  of  a  discussion  that  would,  if  pres 
ent,  fill  IV  2,  suggest  that  Emerson  is  particularly  im 
pressed  by  the  advantages  of  " solitude"?  What  does 
his  own  life  suggest  in  this  connection? 
C.  Concluding  paragraphs: 

1.  Heredity  plays  its  part  in  the  culture  of  the  individual. 

2.  The  race  is  cultivated  through  all  its  experiences. 

II.  Has  Emerson  succeeded  in  making  you  feel  that  in 
tellectual  one-sidedness  is  deformity?  If  so,  how? 

With  Emerson's  discussion  the  students  may  compare  that  of 
Matthew  Arnold  in  Sweetness  and  Light  (found  in  a  volume  called 
Culture  and  Anarchy}. 

After  reading  Culture  the  class  should  turn  to  The  American  Scholar. 
A  brief  outline  of  the  essay  is  given  below,  and  the  students  should 
consult  also  Cooke,  pages  59  and  60,  and  Holmes,  pages  107  to  115. 

A.  Preface:  the  occasion;  the  subject  (paragraphs  1,  2). 

B.  Introduction:  The  man  is  more  than  his  trade  or  profession 

(paragraphs  3-7). 

C.  Body: 

I.  Influences  that  form  the  scholar  (paragraphs  8-28) : 

1.  nature; 

2.  books; 

3.  action. 


312         STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

II.  Duties  of  the  scholar  (paragraphs  29-35) ; 

III.  Application  of  these  ideas  to  our  own  country  and  times 

(paragraphs  36-43). 
D.  Conclusion. 

If  it  is  accessible,  the  class  will  also  be  interested  in  George 
William  Curtis's  oration  on  The  Leadership  of  Educated  Men. 


APPENDIX 


I.  A  LIST  OF  ESSAY  SUBJECTS 

The  subjects  in  the  following  list  have  been  found  very  useful 
as  work  supplementary  to  the  study  of  the  history  of  American  liter 
ature.  For  older  students  they  have  been  used  as  subjects  for  essays 
and  reports.  For  less  mature  students  they  should  be  rather  topics 
for  class  conversation  and  study,  expanding  the  most  interesting 
topics  hi  the  text-books. 

1.  Interesting  Tales  from  Early  Documents  of  Virginia. 
Material  in  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  Library  of  American  Litera 
ture,  I. 

2.  Stories  of  Colonial  Days  in  New  England. 

Material  in  Stedman  and  Hutchinson  I.  Has  this  material  literary 
value? 

3.  Jonathan  Edwards. 

Judge  him  by  the  selections  from  his  works  published  in  Stedman  and 
Hutchinson  II. 

4.  Examples  of  Self-reliance  and  Self-direction  from  the  Auto 
biography  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

5.  The  Good  Advice  of  "Poor  Richard." 

6.  The  Writings  of  Thomas  Paine. 
Material  in  Stedman  and  Hutchinson  III. 

7.  The  Orators  of  the  Revolution. 

The  text-book  should  give  a  starting-point.  See  also  biographies, 
histories,  and  Stedman  and  Hutchinson  III. 

313 


314  APPENDIX 

8.  Our  National  Songs. 

The  text-book  on  history  of  American  literature  should  give  a 
starting-point. 

9.  New  York  as  a  Literary  Center. 

Histories  of  American  literature  and  biographies  of  men  will  furnish 
material. 

10.  Influence  on  Irving's  Work  of  his  Youthful  Travels  on  the 
Hudson. 

See  Life  and  Letters  of  Irving,  edited  by  Pierre  Irving,  Vol.  I, 
chapters  2  and  3.  Compare  with  stories  and  sketches  relating  to  the 
Hudson  in  Irving's  works. 

11.  Old  Christmas  Customs  in  Merry  England. 

The  Sketch  Book.  Find  origin  and  history  of  customs  if  you  have  the 
material  in  your  library 

12.  Irving' 's  Attitude  toward  the  Indian. 

The  Sketch  Book.    Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York. 

13.  English  Life  as  Portrayed  in  Bracebridge  Hall. 

14.  Irving's  Power  of  Description  as  Shown  in  The  Sketch  Book. 

15.  The  Humor  and  Pathos  of  The  Sketch  Book. 

16.  Why  some  Descendants  of  Old  Dutch  Families  were  Offended  by 
Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York. 

17.  An  Illustrated  Paper  on  The  Alhambra. 

18.  The  Romance  of  the  North-west  as  Told  in  Irving's  Astoria. 

19.  The  Influence  of  Spain  on  Irving. 
See  biographies,  criticisms,  and  works. 

20.  Irving  as  a  Writer  of  Biography  and  History. 

Enumerate  his  books  of  this  sort  and  tell  how  they  are  regarded. 
Make  a  more  careful  study  of  one,  as  Washington,  Columbus,  The 
Conquest  of  Granada,  or  Goldsmith. 


APPENDIX  315 

21-24.  The  Style  and  Purpose  of  Irving' s  Tales. 

Think  over  the  following  extract  from  one  of  Irving's  letters.  "For 
my  part,  I  consider  a  story  merely  as  a  frame,  on  which  to  stretch  the 
materials.  It  is  the  play  of  thought,  and  sentiment,  and  language;  the 
weaving  in  of  characters,  lightly  yet  expressively  delineated;  the  familiar 
and  faithful  exhibition  of  scenes  in  common  life;  and  the  half-concealed 
vein  of  humor  that  is  often  playing  through  the  whole,  —  these  are 
among  what  I  aim  at,  and  upon  which  I  felicitate  myself  in  proportion  as 
I  think  I  succeed."  With  this  ideal  in  mind,  study  four  of  Irving's  tales: 

21.  Rip  Van  Winkle. 

22.  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

23.  The  Spectre  Bridegroom. 

24.  Dolph  Heiliger. 

Has  Irving  accomplished  his  purpose  in  these  tales?  How? 
Notice  how  he  emphasizes  local  color  and  social  setting. 

(It  might  be  well  to  defer  this  topic  till  after  the  class  has  studied 
the  short-stories  of  Poe  and  Hawthorne.  They  will  then  be  able 
to  say  why  Irving's  tales  are  not  exactly  short-stories.) 

25.  Bryant  and  Abolition. 

See  index  to  Godwin's  Life;  Bryant's  prose;  his  poems  written  during 
the  Civil  War;  Lowell's  On  Board  the  76. 

26.  Bryant  as  a  Writer  on  American  Nature. 

How  his  nature  poems  illustrate  his  advice  to  his  brother  (Letter  of 
Feb.  19,  1832):  "I  saw  some  lines  by  you  to  a  skylark.  Did  you  ever 
see  such  a  bird?  Let  me  counsel  you  to  draw  your  images,  in  describing 
Nature,  from  what  you  observe  around  you,  unless  you  are  confessedly 
composing  a  description  of  some  foreign  country,  when,  of  course,  you 
will  learn  what  you  can  from  books.  The  skylark  is  an  English  bird,  and 
an  American  who  has  never  visited  Europe  has  no  right  to  be  in  raptures 
about  it." 

27.  Bryant's  Style  in  his  Blank  Verse  Poems. 

Summary  of  points  of  style  in  poems  studied  in  detail:  a.  Character 
of  thought;  b.  Rhetorical  devices  used  to  express  the  thought  effectively. 


316  APPENDIX 

Contrast  with  these  in  tone  and  style  other  nature  poems,  as  Green 
River  and  June,  not  written  in  blank  verse. 

28.  Poe's  Criticisms  of  Longfellow  and  Bryant. 

29.  Poe's  Critical  Work  on  Hawthorne. 

30.  Poe's  William  Wilson  and  Stevenson's  Dr.  Jekyl  and  Mr. 
Hyde. 

See  also  St.  Paul  in  Romans  7:23. 

31.  Poe's  The  Gold-Bug  and  Conan  Doyle's  The  Adventure  of  the 
Dancing  Men. 

Which  is  the  better  story?  Doyle's  story  is  in  a  volume  called  The 
Return  of  Sherlock  Holmes. 

32.  Compare  Poe's  Dupin  and  Doyle's  Sherlock  Holmes. 

What  is  the  principle  on  which  each  works?  Use  Poe's  The  Purloined 
Letter,  and  Doyle's  The  Adventure  of  the  Second  Stain  (in  The  Return 
of  Sherlock  Holmes)  and  The  Scandal  in  Bohemia  (in  Sherlock  Holmes 
Series,  Vol.  II). 

33.  Longfellow's  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

Plan  and  Poems.    See  Index  to  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal. 

34.  Longfellow's  Anti-slavery  Poems. 

See  Poems  and  Index  to  Life,  Letters,  and  Journal. 

35.  Longfellow's  The  Building  of  the  Ship  and  Schiller's  The  Song 
of  the  Bell. 

See  Longfellow's  Journal  of  March  18,  23,  1850,  just  after  publication 
of  his  poem.  And  see  Scholl,  "  Longfellow  and  Schiller's  'Lied  von  der 
Glocke,'  "  in  Modern  Language  Notes,  February,  1913. 

36.  Longfellow's  Autobiographical  Poems. 

See  references  to  wife  and  children  in  Index  to  Life,  Letters,  and  Jour 
nal.  Poems:  Footsteps  of  Angels,  To  a  Child,  Resignation,  Auf  Wied- 
ersehen,  The  Two  Angels,  My  Lost  Youth,  The  Children's  Hour,  The 
Haunted  Chamber,  The  Cross  of  Snow,  From  My  Armchair,  The  Iron 
Pen.  Consider  also  the  prose  romance  Hyperion. 


APPENDIX  317 

37.  Longfellow's  Friends  in  his  Poetry. 

Wm.  E.  Charming,  Agassiz,  Bayard  Taylor,  Hawthorne,  Charles 
Sumner,  The  River  Charles,  Three  Friends  of  Mine,  The  Herons  of 
Elmwood,  The  Two  Angels,  The  Burial  of  the  Poet.  See  Index  to  Life, 
Letters,  and  Journal  for  these  persons  and  Longfellow's  friendship  with 
them. 

38.  Longfellow's  Scholarship  in  his  Poetry. 

See  biographies  for  an  account  of  his  scholarship.  Speak  of  figures, 
allusions,  imitations,  and  adaptations.  From  his  poems  themselves 
discover  the  amount  and  scope  of  his  work  as  a  translator.  Add  a 
paragraph  or  two  on  the  Dante  translation.  G.  W.  Curtis  says  that  his 
"scholarship  decorated  his  pure  and  limpid  song  as  flowers  are  mirrored 
in  a  placid  stream." 

39.  Longfellow's  Imagination. 

In  Hyperion  Longfellow  writes  thus  of  his  hero,  Paul  Flemming  (who 
is  his  own  counterpart):  "His  thoughts  were  twin-born;  the  thought 
itself,  and  its  figurative  semblance  in  the  outer  world.  Thus,  through 
the  quiet,  still  waters  of  his  soul  each  image  floated  double,  'swan  and 
shadow.'"  Discuss  this  statement;  illustrate  the  characteristic  by 
examples  from  Longfellow's  poems. 

40.  Emerson's  Method  of  Compiling  his  Essays  and  its  Effect  on  • 
his  Style. 

Find  out  from  biographies  about  his  note-book  habit.  Discuss  its 
effect  on  sentence-structure  and  coherence  of  paragraphs. 

41.  The  Short  Sentence  in  Emerson. 

42.  Emerson's  Mind  and  Range  of  Interests  as  Shown  by  his 
Figures  of  Speech  and  his  Allusions. 

43.  Emerson's  Attitude  toward  Nature. 
Nature  poems  and  prose  work  called  Nature. 

44.  Thoreau's  Life  and  Character  as  it  Appears  in  his  Walden. 

45.  What  Makes   Thoreau's   Walden   Literature   and  not  Mere 
Scientific  Record. 


318  APPENDIX 

Style,  imagination,  lack  of  scientific  system.  For  the  accuracy  of 
Thoreau's  observation,  see  Emerson's  essay  on  Thoreau. 

46.  The  Friendship  of  Emerson  and  Thoreau. 

Biographies  of  both  men  (indexes) .  Emerson's  Essay  on  Thoreau, 
Emerson's  poem,  Woodnotes  I.  Of  the  poem,  Emerson's  son  writes: 

"He  (E.)  delighted  in  being  led  to  the  very  inner  shrines  of  the  wood- 
gods  by  this  man  (T.),  clear-eyed  and  true  and  stern  enough  to  be 
trusted  with  then1  secrets,  who  filled  the  portrait  of  the  Forest-seer  of 
the  Woodnotes,  although  those  lines  were  written  before  their  author 
came  to  know  Thoreau."  "The  passages  about  the  Forest-seer  fit 
Thoreau  so  well  that  the  general  belief  that  Mr.  E.  had  him  in  mind 
may  be  accepted,  but  one  member  of  the  family  recalls  his  saying  that  a 
part  of  this  picture  was  drawn  before  he  knew  Thoreau's  gifts  and 
experiences." 

The  reference  to  the  "Forest-seer"  is  in  stanza  2  of  Woodnotes  I. 
The  two  men  were  acquainted  when  the  entire  poem  was  published 
(1840).  With  stanzas  3  and  4  compare  Thoreau's  Maine  Woods. 

47.  Hawthorne's  Descriptions  of  Colonial  Life. 

See  the  Colonial  tales  in  collections  of  short  stories;  Grandfather's 
Chair;  The  Scarlet  Letter. 

.    48-54.  Analysis  of  Hawthorne's  Short  Stories. 

Read  the  story  for  general  impression;  decide  on  its  moral  teaching; 
trace  the  plot;  discuss  characterization;  show  how  the  author,  through 
his  style  and  suggestions,  brings  out  the  moral;  if  he  states  the  moral  in 
so  many  words,  quote  them. 

48.  The  Minister's  Black  Veil.    (Twice  Told  Tales  I.) 
The  isolation  of  the  soul. 

49.  Young  Goodman  Brown.     (Mosses  I.) 
"A  Vision  of  Sin:"  how  it  came  and  its  effect. 

50.  The    Snow-Image. 

How  a  good  man  may  do  much  harm. 

51.  The  Birthmark.    (Mosses  I.) 

See  American  Note-Books,  1839:  "A  person  to  be  the  death  of  his  be* 


APPENDIX  319 

loved  in  trying  to  raise  her  to  more  than  mortal  perfection;  yet  this 
should  be  a  comfort  to  him  for  having  aimed  so  highly  and  so  holily." 
Does  the  story  as  developed  seem  to  you  to  show  the  moral  idea  of  the 
Note? 

52.  Drowne's  Wooden  Image.    (Mosses  II.) 

Ah,  how  skillful  grows  the  hand 
That  obeyeth  Love's  command! 
It  is  the  heart,  and  not  the  brain, 
That  to  the  highest  doth  attain. 
And  he  who  followeth  Love's  behest 
Far  excelleth  all  the  rest! 

—  LONGFELLOW:  The  Building  of  the  Ship. 

53.  Rappaccini's  Daughter.    (Mosses  I.) 
The  transmission  of  poison. 

54.  The  White  Old  Maid.    (Twice  Told  Tales  II.) 
The  shiner  and  the  sufferer. 

"A  change  from  a  gay  young  girl  to  an  old  woman;  the  melancholy 
events,  the  effects  of  which  have  clustered  around  her  character  and 
gradually  imbued  it  with  their  influence,  till  she  becomes  a  lover  of  sick 
chambers,  taking  pleasure  in  receiving  dying  breaths  and  in  laying  out 
the  dead;  also  leaving  her  mind  full  of  funeral  reminiscences,  and  possess 
ing  more  acquaintance  beneath  the  burial  turf  than  upon  it." — Amer 
ican  Note-Books. 

55.  Poe  and  Hawthorne  as  Short-story  Writers. 

Compare  them  on  these  points:  1.  Themes  chosen;  2.  Plot  construc 
tion;  3.  Characterization;  sympathy  with  and  interest  in  human  beings; 
4.  Choice  of  setting  (strange  or  commonplace) ;  5.  Power  in  description, 
attitude  toward  nature;  6.  Use  of  the  supernatural;  the  possible  and  the 
impossible;  the  unreal;  verisimilitude;  7.  Power  to  write  conversation; 
8.  Pathos  and  humor;  9.  Shrewd  comment  on  questions  of  life  and  social 
relations;  10.  Moralizing;  11.  Moral  teaching;  12.  Power  to  produce 
effect  intended.  After  the  student  has  worked  out  his  own  thoughts, 
he  may  consult  the  following  references:  Barrett,  Short-story  Writing, 
p.  20;  Matthews,  The  Philosophy  of  the  Short-story,  p.  39;  Stedman, 
Poets  of  America,  p.  254;  Canby,  The  Short  Story  in  English,  Chapters 


320  APPENDIX 

XI  and  XII.  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of 
America,  New  Series  XVIII,  1,  "The  Supernatural  in  American  Litera 
ture." 

56.  Whittier's  Autobiographical  Poems. 

Snow-Bound,  The  Barefoot  Boy,  To  My  Old  Schoolmaster,  In  School 
days,  My  Playmate,  Memories.  For  references  explaining  poems,  see 
index  to  Pickard's  Life  and  Letters  of  Whittier. 

57.  Local  Color  in  Whittier's  Poems  of  Contemporary  New  England. 

58.  Whittier  and  War. 

See  Pickard's  index  for  references  to  Whittier's  attitude  toward  univer 
sal  peace,  and  see  index  to  Poems.  For  his  attitude  toward  the  Civil 
War,  see  Pickard  II,  476. 

59.  Whittier's  Anti-Slavery  Poems. 

See  Poems.  See  Pickard's  Life,  index.  Note  particularly  Vol.  I, 
pp.  122,  131,  141,  189,  191,  203,  218. 

60.  Our  Anti-Slavery  Orators. 

The  text-book  in  American  literature  should  furnish  a  starting-point. 

61.  Whittier's  Political  Poems. 

See  Poems.  Discuss  particularly  Ichabod  (1850)  and  The  Lost  Occa 
sion.  Pickard  I,  327.  Compare  Browning's  The  Lost  Leader.  Web 
ster's  speech  of  March  7, 1850,  and  the  feeling  of  the  Abolitionists  toward 
the  Compromise  Bill.  Webster  felt  that  the  preservation  of  the  Union 
was  more  important  than  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  that  compromise 
was  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the  Union. 

62.  Whittier's  Poems  to  Persons. 

See  Poems.    For  his  relations  to  these  persons,  see  Pickard,  index. 

63.  Whittier's  Songs  of  Labor. 

Discuss  each  for  literary  style,  and  as  an  exposition  of  life.  See 
Pickard,  I,  297,  348-350. 

64.  Whittier's  Nature  Poems. 

See  Poems.  See  books  of  criticism,  and  histories  of  American  litera 
ture. 


APPENDIX  321 

65.  Whittier's  The  Tent  on  the  Beach. 
Plan.    Poems  included.    See  Pickard,  index. 

66.  Whittier's  Poems  of  Early  New  England  Life. 

What  phases  have  particularly  attracted  him?  Cassandra  South- 
wick,  The  Exiles,  The  Quaker  of  the  Olden  Time,  How  the  Women 
went  from  Dover,  Banished  from  Massachusetts,  Calef  in  Boston, 
Mary  Garvin,  The  Witch's  Daughter,  The  Garrison  of  Cape  Ann,  The 
Prophecy  of  Samuel  Sewall,  The  Double-headed  Snake  of  Newbury, 
The  Swan  Song  of  Parson  Avery,  The  Truce  of  Piscataqua,  Amy  Went- 
worth,  The  Countess,  Nauhaught  the  Deacon,  Norembega,  Cobbler 
Keezar's  Vision,  The  Pennsylvania  Pilgrim,  John  Underbill,  The 
Witch  of  Wenham,  In  the  Old  South,  The  King's  Missive. 

67.  Whittier's  Religious  Poems. 

See  "Religious  Faith"  in  Pickard's  index,  particularly  pp.  265,  478, 
567,  628,  629,  631,  632,  655,  683,  709,  747,  751.  Hymns,  684.  State  in 
a  paragraph  the  thought  and  feeling  you  find  in  the  poems:  Religious 
Poems,  The  Vaudois  Teacher,  The  Female  Martyr,  The  Chapel  of  the 
Hermits,  Tauler,  The  Hermit  of  the  Thebiad,  Mary  Garvin,  The 
Preacher,  Miriam,  The  Two  Rabbins,  Centennial  Hymn,  Ein'  feste 
Burg,  The  Reformer,  The  New  Exodus,  The  Great  Awakening,  At 
Last,  What  the  Traveller  Said  at  Sunset,  Between  the  Gates.  How  does 
Whittier's  teaching  differ  from  that  of  the  orthodox  New  England 
churches  of  his  day? 

68.  Lowell's  Love  Poems. 

See  "White,  Maria,"  and  "Lowell,  Maria  W."  in  indexes  to  Scud- 
der's  Life  and  Norton's  Letters.  The  influence  of  Mrs.  Lowell  over  her 
husband.  Poems:  Irene,  My  Lover,  Love,  O  Moonlight  Deep  and 
Tender,  Sonnets  II,  III,  VIII,  IX,  X,  XIII,  XXI,  XXII.  Written  after 
Mrs.  Lowell's  death:  The  Wind-harp,  Auf  Wiedersehen  and  Palinode, 
After  the  Burial,  The  Dead  House. 

69.  Lowell's  Poems  of  Family  Life. 

References  to  Lowell's  children  in  Scudder's  Life  and  Norton's  Letters. 
Poems:  She  Came  and  Went,  The  Changeling,  The  First  Snowfall,  After 
the  Burial,  An  Indian  Summer  Reverie  (end  of  poem). 


322  APPENDIX 

70.  Lowell's  Friendships  in  his  Verse. 

See  poems  addressed  to  various  persons.  For  his  relations  to  these 
men,  consult  Life  and  Letters. 

71.  LoweWs  The  Biglow  Papers,  First  Series. 

General  plan;  use  of  dialect;  special  purpose  of  each  paper.  Use  in 
connection  with  The  Present  Crisis. 

72.  Lowell's  The  Biglow  Papers,  Second  Series. 

Compare  with  First  Series:  note  change  in  poet's  feeling;  how  ex 
pressed?  Purpose  of  each  paper.  Use  in  connection  with  Civil  War 
poems  and  Commemoration  Ode. 

73.  Lowell's  A  Fable  for  Critics. 

Character  of  criticism;  persons  criticised.    Consult  Life  and  Letters. 

74.  Lowell's  Books  and  Libraries  and  Emerson's  Books. 

A  comparison  of  the  thoughts  and  the  advice  of  the  two  men. 

75.  Lowell's  Prose  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Stanza  VI  of  the  Com 
memoration  Ode. 

Use  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  Ode. 

76.  Holmes's  Friendships  in  his  Verse. 

See  his  poems  addressed  to  various  persons.  Consult  biographies 
for  his  relations  to  these  persons.  , 

77.  Holmes's  Best  Occasional  Poems. 

Speak  especially  of  those  written  for  reunions  of  the  Class  of  '29, 
and  particularly  of  The  Old  Man  Dreams,  The  Boys,  The  Last  Survivor, 
After  the  Curfew;  also  poems  for  "The  Saturday  Club;  "  The  Iron  Gate; 
and  poems  written  to  be  read  at  banquets,  etc.  Consult  biographies  of 
Holmes.  Compare  Holmes's  later  class  poems  with  Longfellow's  Mori- 
turi  Salutamus.  Discover  characteristics  of  good  occasional  poems. 

78.  The  Wit  and  Wisdom  of  the  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-table. 

79.  Across  the  Sea  with  Bayard  Taylor. 
Poems  of  travel;  books  of  travel. 


APPENDIX  323 

80.  Our  Great  Historians. 

Prescott,  Motley,  Bancroft,  Parkman,  Sparks. 

81.  American  Orators  Since  the  Civil  War. 

The  text-book  in  American  literature  should  furnish  the  names. 

82.  The  Concord  Group  of  Authors. 

Minor  men  as  well  as  famous  men.    The  place;  the  life;  the  spirit. 

83.  Brook  Farm. 

Use  accessible  books  telling  of  life  and  residents.  Biographies  and 
letters  of  men  connected  with  the  community.  Speak  of  Hawthorne's 
The  Blithedale  Romance. 

84.  The  Cambridge  Group  of  Authors  and  Scholars. 

Consult  Matthew  Arnold's  essay,  "The  Function  of  Criticism  at  the 
Present  Time/ 'for  his  theory  concerning  the  need  of  an  "atmosphere  of 
ideas"  before  great  creative  work  can  be  done.  Picture  the  intellectual 
life  of  Cambridge  as  a  background  and  environment  for  the  work  of 
Longfellow,  Holmes,  and  Lowell.  Great  educators  and  men  of  letters 
are  important.  Relation  between  Cambridge  and  Concord. 

85.  Houses  Famous  in  American  Literature. 
Biographies,  histories  of  literature,  pictures. 

86.  The  Personality  of  the  Poet  as  Revealed  by  his  Poetry. 

Choose  some  poet  (or  prose  writer),  and  discuss  his  personality  as 
revealed  by  his  works:  his  logical  power,  imagination,  emotional  force, 
interest  in  social  and  national  affairs. 

87.  A  Conversation  with  a  Great  Writer. 

Report  an  imaginary  conversation  that  some  American  writer  might 
hold  with  you,  or  with  some  other  person.  Setting,  subject,  opinions, 
style,  manner,  etc.,  must  be  true  to  the  author's  personality  as  you  find 
it  revealed  in  his  works. 

88.  A  Scientist  among  the  Poets. 

See  Longfellow's  Three  Friends  of  Mine,  Noel,  The  Fiftieth  Birthday 
of  Agassiz,  Lowell's  Agassiz,  Whittier's  The  Prayer  of  Agassiz,  Holmes' 
Farewell  to  Agassiz,  At  the  Saturday  Club,  and  Parsons'  Agassiz. 


324  APPENDIX 

89.  American  History  in  American  Literature. 

1.  Irving  on  the  Colonial  Period. 

2.  The  Colonial  Stories  of  Hawthorne. 

3.  The  Colonial  Poems  of  Longfellow. 

4.  The  Colonial  Poems  of  Whittier. 

5.  The  Revolutionary  Period. 

6.  The  Anti-slavery  Struggle  (see  particularly  Lowell,  Whittier, 

and  Longfellow). 

7.  The  Civil  War. 

90.  Short  stories  by  the  following  writers  are  particularly  worthy 
of  study.    Some  of  them  are  valuable  for  their  "  local  color,"  i.  e., 
they  show  the  peculiarities  of  life  in  the  localities  which  form  their 
setting. 

Edward  Everett  Hale,  Bret  Harte,  S.  L.  Clemens,  ("Mark 
Twain  "),  H.  C.  Bunner,  T.  B.  Aldrich,  Sarah  Orne  Jewett,  Mary  E. 
Wilkins  Freeman,  Mary  E.  Murfree  ("Charles  Egbert  Craddock"), 
George  W.  Cable,  Hamlin  Garland,  William  S.  Porter  ("O.  Henry"), 
Margaret  Deland,  Joel  Chandler  Harris,  Thomas  Nelson  Page, 
W.  D.  Howells,  Henry  James,  Jr.,  Myra  Kelly. 

II.  AN  ABSTRACT  OF  FORMAN'S  GREATER  LOVE  * 

This  story,  written  by  Justus  Miles  Forman  and  published  in 
Harper's  Magazine,  April,  1908,  is  referred  to  in  the  study  of  Emer 
son's  Heroism. 

Copley  Kent,  a  rising  lawyer,  and  his  fiancee,  Miss  Eversleigh,  were 
walking  together  on  the  street  when  a  wretched  beggar  approached, 
asking  alms.  Kent  refused  from  principle  to  give  him  money.  Miss 
Eversleigh  agreed  that,  as  a  matter  of  reason,  one  should  not  encourage 
beggars,  but  would  have  been  better  pleased  if  Kent  had  given  from  pity. 
A  few  minutes  later  the  beggar  tried  to  cross  the  street,  and  fell  in  the 
path  of  a  run-away  team.  Miss  Eversleigh  urged  Kent  to  go  to  his 
assistance,  but  Kent  remained  on  the  pavement.  At  the  last  moment 
Jimmie  Rogers  leaped  from  an  automobile,  and  rescued  the  beggar. 
Kent  saw  that  both  Rogers  and  Miss  Eversleigh  had  lost  esteem  for  him, 

*  Condensed  from  Harper's  Magazine.  Copyright,  1908,  by  Harper  and 
Brother.  Used  by  permission. 


APPENDIX  325 

and  discussed  the  affair  with  them  both.  They  agreed  with  him  that  his 
life  was  worth  more  to  society  than  that  of  the  wretched  beggar,  and 
that  the  truly  altruistic  attitude  was  the  one  which  he  had  taken.  But 
Rogers  explained  frankly,  at  Kent's  urgent  request,  that  a  man  of  the 
best  breeding  and  finest  intuitions  would  have  felt  that  he  should  have 
risked  his  life  for  the  beggar,  whatever  reason  told  him.  Kent  became 
thoroughly  unhappy  about  the  affair.  One  day  a  message  called  Rogers 
to  the  hospital,  where  he  found  Kent  dying  from  injuries  he  had  sus 
tained  in  trying  vainly  to  save  the  life  of  a  poor  child,  who  had  strayed 
into  the  middle  of  the  street.  Rogers  left  the  bedside  of  his  dead  friend 
with  the  words,  "'I  am  going  to  break  somebody's  heart.  I  am  going 
to  take  the  news  to  the  girl  who  helped  me  kill  him.'"  —  "He  went  out 
of  the  room,  faltering  in  his  steps,  his  hands  pressed  over  his  face." 

Throughout  the  story  the  reader  has  supposed  the  author  to  be 
in  full  sympathy  with  Rogers  and  Miss  Eversleigh,  but  the  last 
words  leave  him  in  doubt;  the  author  does  not  seem  to  decide  the 
question.  Should  one  follow  the  dictates  of  reason  in  such  matters, 
or  be  governed  by  a  feeling  that  reason  condemns  as  quixotic? 
When  one  gives  up  what  reason  tells  him  is  a  broader  life  for  him 
self  and  a  greater  good  for  society  to  do  something  which  seems  of 
doubtful  advantage  to  any  one  and  disastrous  for  himself,  does  he 
"  lay  down  his  life  to  find  it  again  "? 

III.  ADDISON:  THOUGHTS  IN  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 

When  I  am  in  a  serious  humor,  I  very  often  walk  by  myself  in 
Westminster  Abbey;  where  the  gloominess  of  the  place,  and  the  use 
to  which  it  is  applied,  with  the  solemnity  of  the  building,  and  the 
condition  of  the  people  who  lie  in  it,  are  apt  to  fill  the  mind  with  a 
kind  of  melancholy,  or  rather  thoughtfulness,  that  is  not  disagree 
able.  I  yesterday  passed  a  whole  afternoon  in  the  churchyard, 
the  cloisters,  and  the  church,  amusing  myself  with  the  tombstones 
and  inscriptions  which  I  met  with  in  those  several  regions  of  the 
dead.  Most  of  them  recorded  nothing  else  of  the  buried  person, 
but  that  he  was  born  upon  one  day,  and  died  upon  another:  the 


326  APPENDIX 

whole  history  of  his  life  being  comprehended  in  those  two  circum 
stances,  that  are  common  to  all  mankind.  I  could  not  but  look  upon 
these  registers  of  existence,  whether  of  brass  or  marble,  as  a  kind 
of  satire  upon  the  departed  persons;  who  had  left  no  other  memorial 
of  them  but  that  they  were  born  and  that  they  died.  They  put 
me  in  mind  of  several  persons  mentioned  in  the  battles  of  heroic 
poems,  who  have  sounding  names  given  them,  for  no  other  reason 
but  that  they  may  be  killed,  and  are  celebrated  for  nothing  but 
being  knocked  on  the  head.  The  life  of  these  men  is  finely  described 
in  holy  writ  by  "the  path  of  an  arrow,"  which  is  immediately 
closed  up  and  lost. 

Upon  my  going  into  the  church,  I  entertained  myself  with  the 
digging  of  a  grave;  and  saw  in  every  shovelful  of  it  that  was  thrown 
up,  the  fragment  of  a  bone  or  skull  intermixed  with  a  kind  of  fresh 
mouldering  earth,  that  some  time  or  other  had  a  place  in  the  com 
position  of  a  human  body.  Upon  this  I  began  to  consider  with 
myself  what  innumerable  multitudes  of  people  lay  confused  together 
under  the  pavement  of  that  ancient  cathedral;  how  men  and  women, 
friends  and  enemies,  priests  and  soldiers,  monks  and  prebendaries, 
were  crumbled  amongst  one  another,  and  blended  together  in  the 
same  common  mass;  how  beauty,  strength,  and  youth,  with  old 
age,  weakness,  and  deformity,  lay  undistinguished  in  the  same  pro 
miscuous  heap  of  matter. 

After  having  thus  surveyed  this  great  magazine  of  mortality, 
as  it  were,  in  the  lump,  I  examined  it  more  particularly  by  the  ac 
counts  which  I  found  on  several  of  the  monuments  which  are  raised 
in  every  quarter  of  that  ancient  fabric.  Some  of  them  were  covered 
with  such  extravagant  epitaphs,  that,  if  it  were  possible  for  the  dead 
person  to  be  acquainted  with  them,  he  would  blush  at  the  praises 
which  his  friends  have  bestowed  upon  him.  There  are  others  so 
excessively  modest,  that  they  deliver  the  character  of  the  person 
departed  in  Greek  or  Hebrew,  and  by  that  means  are  not  under 
stood  once  in  a  twelvemonth.  In  the  poetical  quarter,  I  found  there 
were  poets  who  had  no  monuments,  and  monuments  which  had  no 
poets.  I  observed,  indeed,  that  the  present  war  had  filled  the  church 


APPENDIX  327 

with  many  of  these  uninhabited  monuments,  which  had  been  erected 
to  the  memory  of  persons  whose  bodies  were  perhaps  buried  in 
the  plains  of  Blenheim,  or  in  the  bosom  of  the  ocean. 

I  could  not  but  be  very  much  delighted  with  several  modern 
epitaphs,  which  are  written  with  great  elegance  of  expression  and 
justness  of  thought,  and  therefore  do  honor  to  the  living  as  well 
as  to  the  dead.  As  a  foreigner  is  very  apt  to  conceive  an  idea  of 
the  ignorance  or  politeness  of  a  nation,  from  the  turn  of  their  public 
monuments  and  incriptions,  they  should  be  submitted  to  the  peru 
sal  of  men  of  learning  and  genius,  before  they  are  put  in  execution. 
Sir  Cloudesly  Shovel's  monument  has  very  often  given  me  great 
offence:  instead  of  the  brave  rough  English  Admiral,  which  was 
the  distinguishing  character  of  that  plain  gallant  man,  he  is  repre 
sented  on  his  tomb  by  the  figure  of  a  beau,  dressed  in  a  long  peri 
wig,  and  reposing  himself  upon  velvet  cushions  under  a  canopy  of 
state.  The  inscription  is  answerable  to  the  monument;  for  instead 
of  celebrating  the  many  remarkable  actions  he  had  performed  in 
the  service  of  his  country,  it  acquaints  us  only  with  the  manner  of 
his  death,  in  which  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  reap  any  honor. 
The  Dutch,  whom  we  are  apt  to  despise  for  want  of  genius,  show 
an  infinitely  greater  taste  of  antiquity  and  politeness  in  their  build 
ings  and  works  of  this  nature,  than  what  we  meet  with  in  those  of 
our  own  country.  The  monuments  of  their  admirals,  which  have 
been  erected  at  the  public  expense,  represent  them  like  themselves ; 
and  are  adorned  with  rostral  crowns  and  naval  ornaments,  with 
beautiful  festoons  of  seaweed,  shells,  and  coral. 

But  to  return  to  our  subject.  I  have  left  the  repository  of  our 
English  kings  for  the  contemplation  of  another  day,  when  I  shall 
find  my  mind  disposed  for  so  serious  an  amusement.  I  know  that 
entertainments  of  this  nature  are  apt  to  raise  dark  and  dismal 
thoughts  in  timorous  minds  and  gloomy  imaginations;  but  for  my 
own  part,  though  I  am  always  serious,  I  do  not  know  what  it  is  to  be 
melancholy;  and  can  therefore  take  a  view  of  nature  in  her  deep  and 
solemn  scenes,  with  the  same  pleasure  as  in  her  most  gay  and  de 
lightful  ones.  By  this  means  I  can  improve  myself  with  those 


328  APPENDIX 

objects  which  others  consider  with  terror.  When  I  look  upon  the 
tombs  of  the  great,  every  emotion  of  envy  dies  in  me;  when  I  read 
the  epitaphs  of  the  beautiful,  every  inordinate  desire  goes  out; 
when  I  meet  with  the  grief  of  parents  upon  a  tomb-stone,  my  heart 
melts  with  compassion;  when  I  see  the  tomb  of  the  parents  them 
selves,  I  consider  the  vanity  of  grieving  for  those  whom  we  must 
quickly  follow;  when  I  see  kings  lying  by  those  who  deposed  them, 
when  I  consider  rival  wits  placed  side  by  side,  or  the  holy  men  that 
divided  the  world  with  their  contests  and  disputes,  I  reflect  with 
sorrow  and  astonishment  on  the  little  competitions,  factions,  and 
debates  of  mankind.  When  I  read  the  several  dates  of  the  tombs, 
of  some  that  died  yesterday,  and  some  six  hundred  years  ago,  I 
consider  that  great  day  when  we  shall  all  of  us  be  contemporaries, 
and  make  our  appearance  together. 


INDEX 


[Numbers  refer  to  pages] 


Alexandrine,  19 

Allegory,  86 

Alliteration,  31,  36 

Allusions,  77 

Ambitious  Guest,  The,  262 

American  Scholar,  The,  312 

Amphibrach,  7 

Analogy,  63 

Anapest  (anapestic  foot),  6 

Antiquity  of  Freedom,  The,  115 

Antithesis,  43 

Apostrophe,  65 

Archaic  words,  55 

Arsenal  at  Springfield,  The,  150 

Assonance,  32 

Balanced  sentences,  42 

Ballads,  26 

Bells,  The,  124 

Bible,  as  source  of  allusions,  79 

Blank  verse,  25 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  108-123 

Building  of  the  Ship,  The,  155 

Cesura,  17 

Chambered  Nautilus,  The,  252 

Character,  287 

Comedy,  27 


Compensation,  295 

Connotation,  51 

Culture,  309 

Curtis,  George  William,  312 

Dactyl  (dactylic  foot),  7 

Decasyllabic  line,  18 

Denotation,  51 

Descent  into  the  Maelstrom,  A,  133 

Didactic  poetry,  28 

Dimeter,  18 

Drama,  26 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  280-312 

End-stopped  lines,  17 

Epic  poetry,  25 

Epigram,  73 

Epithets,  56 

Eternal  Goodness,  The,  185 

Exclamation,  45 

Fable,  87 

Fact,  87 

Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,  The,  130 

Feminine  rime,  20 

Figurative  language,  58 

Figures  of  speech,  58-70 

Flood  of  Years,  The,  121 


329 


330 


INDEX 


Foot  in  poetry,  5 
Forest  Hymn,  A,  113 
Friendship,  282 

General  terms,  48 
Genitive  for  0/-phrase,  55 
Gold-Bug,  The,  137 
Great  Stone  Face,  The,  258 

Hanging  of  the  Crane,  The,  163 

Harmony,  34 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  258-263 

Heptameter,  18 

Heroism,  284 

Hexameter,  18 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  252-257 

Humor,  71 

Huskers,  The,  183 

Hyperbole,  74 

Iambus  (iambic  foot),  5ff. 

Identical  rimes,  20 

Imperfect  rimes,  20 

Incident  in  a  Railroad  Car,  An,  209 

Inscription  for  the  Entrance  to  a 

Wood,  111 
Internal  rime,  32 
Interrogation,  44 
Irony,  75 
Irving,  Washington,  101-107 

Keramos,  172 

Lanier,  Sidney,  264-270 

Last  Walk  in  Autumn,  The,  196 

Leadership  of  Educated  Men,  The, 

312 

Literal  language,  58 
Literature  —  what  it  is,  1 


Longfellow,    Henry    Wadsworth, 

143-179 

Loose  sentences,  39 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  205-251 
Lyric  poetry,  28 

Manners,  290 

Marshes  of  Glynn,  The,  267 
Masculine  rimes,  20 
Melody,  30 
Metaphor,  61 
Meter,  5-16 
Metonymy,  67 
Monometer,  18 
Monument  Mountain,  114 
Moral,  83,  85,  86 
Morituri  Salutamus,  168 
Musical  notation  of  poetry,  11;  12 
My  Garden  Acquaintance,  218 
My  Lost  Youth,  146 
Mythology  as  a  source  of  allu 
sions,  79 

Narrative  poetry,  25 
Nightingale  in  the  Study,  The,  215 

0  Captain!  My  Captain!  271 

Octameter,  18 

Octave,  24 

Octosyllabic  line,  18 

Ode,  28 

Ode  Recited  at  the  Harvard  Com 
memoration,  240 

Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs,  The,  143 

Onomatop03a  (onomatopoetic 
words),  36 

Out  of  the  Cradle  Endlessly  Rock 
ing,  277 


INDEX 


331 


Parable,  87 
Pathos,  74 
Pentameter  line,  18 
Periodic  sentence,  39 
Personification,  63 
Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  124-142 
Poetic  compound,  55 
Poetic  diction,  53-57 
Poetry,  kinds  of,  25-28 
Present  Crisis,  The,  234 
Pun,  73 

Purloined  Letter,  The,  136 
Pyrrhics,  16 

Quotations,  how  to  trace  them,  79 

Raven,  The,  128 
Repetition,  33 
Rhythm,  8 
Rhythmic  phrase,  18 
Rime,  20 
RhoBcus,  211 
Run-on  lines,  17 

Saints,  allusions  to,  79 

Sarcasm,  75 

Satire,  75 

Scansion,  8 

Self-Reliance,  302 

Sentence  inversion,  41 

Sentence  length,  42 

Sestet,  24 

Shakespearian  sonnet,  24 

Shepherd  of  King  Admetus,  The, 

207 

Simile,  60 

Singing  Leaves,  The,  205 
Skeleton  in  Armor,  The,  152 
Snow-Bound,  187 


Song  of  the  Chattahoochee,  The,  264 
Sonnet,  23 
Specific  terms,  48 
Spenserian  stanza,  22 
Spondee  (spondaic  foot),  6 
Stanza,  21 

Stratford-on-Avon,  101 
Strophe,  28 
Synecdoche,  66 
Synonyms,  47 

Tampa  Robins,  266 

Telling  the  Bees,  180 

Tetrameter,  18 

Thanatopsis,  118 

Three  Friends  of  Mine,  148 

To  a  Waterfowl,  109 

Tone-color,  37 

To  the  Dandelion,  213 

Tragedy,  27 

Trimeter,  18 

Trochee  (trochaic  foot),  6ff. 

Truth,  87 

Variation  in  meter,  8 
Vision,  65 

Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  The,  224 
Voiceless,  The,  256 

Westminster  Abbey,  104 

When  Lilacs  Last  in  the  Dooryard 

Bloom'd,  273 
Whitman,  Walt,  271-279 
Whittier,  John  Greenleaf ,  180-204 
Wit,  73 

Words,  long  and  short,  50 
Words,  omission  of,  53 
Words,  shortened,  54 


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